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NOTE.

The following pages contain a prelimi-
nary presentation of certain investigations
and studies which are being carried on by
the undersigned, with the co-operation of
severaL scientists and scholars.

JADE AS A MINERAL.

GENERAL DEFINITION.

Jade is a term generally employed to designate a number
of minerals of tough compact texture and of color varying
from nearly white to very dark green, which have been
used from the earliest times in worked forms as weapons,
utensils, and ornaments. The term, however, properly in-
cludes only two species, Jadeite and Nephrite, and it is to
a study of these minerals that the greater part of the fol-
lowing pages is devoted,

Jadeite and Nephrite are chemically quite distinct sub-
stances, but notwithstanding this fact they are strikingly
alike in many of their properties. Both are hard and com-
pact and usually of distinctly fibrous texture, owing to
which they are exceedingly tough, and may be carved into
very delicate forms. Both are more or less translucent in
most of their varieties and are of various colors, although
shades of green are most characteristic for both. In thin
sections ail varieties of both minerals appear nearly or en-
tirely colorless and quite transparent. Both minerals are
susceptible of taking' a high polish, and the polished sur-
faces frequently exhibit a very characteristic sheen.

In addition to the many characters shared by both min-
erals each has properties peculiar to itself which may be
briefly stated,

Jadeite is a silicate of aluminium and sodium. It almost
always contains in addition small quantities of iron, calcium,
and magnesium ; in the variety called Chloromelanite the
iron amounts to as much as ten per cent. Its chemical
composition and crystalline character make it a member of
the pyroxene group of minerals. It occurs very rarely in
distinct crystals, its usual form being a massive crystalline

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greenish

£ JADE AS A II IN ERA L.

aggregate of closely felted fibres or granules. Its hardness
is about 7, or that of quartz. Its specific gravity is close to
3.33. It fuses readily before the blowpipe to a clear glass
and is not decomposed by hydrochloric acid until after
having been fused.

Nephrite is a silicate of calcium and magnesium, with
generally a small amount of iron replacing magnesium. It
belongs to the amph ibole group of minerals, being identical
in composition with the minerals tremolite and actinolife
of that group. It is distinguished from them solely by its
structure, which is always that of a closely felted, compact
aggregate of fine fibres, never in discrete crystals as are
those minerals. Its hardness is 0,r>. Its specific gravity is
close to 3.0. It fuses with some difficulty to a
glass and is not decomposed by hydrochloric acid

It is evident from this outline of the characteristics of
jadeite and nephrite that the strong resemblance which has
caused them to be classed together under the common name
of Jade is due to comparatively superficial characters ; but
the certain discrimination between them often requires a
more or less complete investigation of all their properties,
chemical and physical. This discrimination becomes the
more difficult owing to the fact that the two substances not
infrequently occur intermixed in the same specimen, the
nephrite having been formed from the jadeite by a gradual
alteration of its chemical and physical constitution. In
such cases it is by means of the study of thin sections with
the microscope that it is alone possible to discover the true
nature of the mineral.

The dual nature of the material composing the objects to
be described in the present work must be kept in mind in
reading the following pages, in which will be found full
descriptions of the properties of both jadeite and nephrite,
the two being considered successively under each separate

Jadeite.— The color of jadeite is highly diversified, ex-
hibiting an almost indefinite variety of shades and tints.

JADE AS A MINERAL.

The commoner colors are , however, tones of white and
various shades of green.

Pure white is not coni ni on* A silvery white, translucent
like chalcedony, is shown in the Chinese bowl No. 3091 of
the collection, and the tea-cup No. 3101* Such specimens
are known as “ Camphor Jade/’

Sugar-white material having the appearance of that va-
riety of marble known as saccharine is occasionally found.
No. 13460, a fragment from Burma, is of this character.

Grayish-, greenish-, bluish-, or yellowish- white tones are
more frequent than the pure white. Examples are very
numerous. Gray of various tones is found, as in parts of
No. 3041, a Chinese vase dating from the Ming dynasty.

A pale lavender color is especially characteristic of the
Burmese jadeite and is highly prized. Specimens of this
tint are generally translucent and highly crystalline, giving
a frosted appearance on polished surfaces. Nos. 3212. a
small double- gourd vase, 131 07, a tiny figure of t-lie god of
longevity, and the eight wine-cups numbered 13009 are
good examples. Patches of the lavender tint are often in-
termingled with green in colorless material, as in No. 3236.

Many shades of green occur in jadeite. Specimens are
found colored a pale greenish-white as in the cylindrical
brush-holder No. 3166. Again, this tint is seen as cloud-
ings in white with transitions to deeper tones as in No. 13-
059. Lettuce-green is shown in the quadrangular vase No.
3015, the flower vase No. 3041, and the miniature dish No.
3211 ; apple-green in r lie gourd-shaped vase No, 3271, and
grass-green in the tea cup No. 3046.

Emerald-green is the most prized color both for itsbeanty
and its rarity. A good example is the incense-burner No.
3104. It sometimes occurs in small patches in the midst of
white or otherwise colored material as in Nos. 3064, 3202,
3258, 3272, and many others. The jewelled jades No. 13-
312, are cut from masses of very translucent and uniformly
colored deep emerald-green, and are probably the finest
examples extant. Emerald-green is th efei-ts'ui of the
Chinese, and is among their most highly valued varieties
of jadeite*

JADE AS A MINERAL.

Greens of darker tone are less common in jadeite. Pear-
leaf green is seen in the Guatemalan liatcliet No. 13330.

Pale bluish-green of almost aquamarine tint is seen in
No. 3126, which forms a transition to the distinctly blue
tints shown in No. 3127, a specimen said to be absolutely
unique. No. 3126 is a mixture of opaque white and pale
blue. No. 3127 is bluish-green with veinings of decided,
almost prussian-blue and brown stains on the surface.

A bluish-lavender color is peculiar to the Tibetan ma-
terial, which is remarkable for its wonderful delicacy, and
it is found in pieces of considerable size. A beautiful
example illustrating this color is No. 13186, the small
figure of the Venus de Milo made in Paris for Mr.
Bishop.

The two bowls Nos. 3231 and 3232 are a delicate greenish-
blue with irregular veins of rich moss-green tint from 1 to
12 mm. in length. To such coloring the Chinese have given
tlie poetical descriptive name of 1 ‘ melting snow enclosing
bits of moss.”

Transitions from the greens to decided tones of yellow
are uncommon. Yellowish-green of strong tone, associated
with emerald-green, is seen in the rice-bowls numbered
3098 and 32C2.

The variety of jadeite called cliloromelanite is character-
ized by containing a large percentage of iron replacing in
part its aluminium. As its name implies, it is of dark-
green color often appearing quite black except in the thin-
nest splinters, when it is seen to be of a slightly translucent
blackish-green color. No. 13242, a long narrow hatchet
from Mexico, is a typical example of this material.

Nephrite . — The color of nephrite varies almost as widely
as does that of jadeite, but is characterized by the greater
frequency of darker shades of green. White is much more
frequent than in jadeite, yet pure white is rare. Very
faint tones of greenish-, bluish-, and grayish-white are
more common than pure white. The Collection furnishes
numerous examples of these, of which several may be
mentioned: e. r/., the beautiful beaker-sliaped vase No.
3071 ; the alter-set of three pieces numbered 13013,

JADE AS A MINERAL.

13014, arid 13015 ; as well as Nos. 13063, 3092, 13104,
13465, 13197, and many others.

Pale yellow of waxy aspect, varying somewhat in tone,
is exceedingly rare, yet the Collection includes several
beautiful examples, of which 13033, 13043, 13044, and
13045 may be mentioned.

Gray, which is somewhat rare, is well exemplified in
Nos. 3037, 3143, 3030, 3279. It is chiefly due to minute
inclusions of opaque black particles in a white matrix, and
varies in depth of tint according to the abundance of
Inclusions. It is thus often speckled or clouded as in the
bowl numbered 3090. The rich gray is often in combina-
tion with inky black, as in the little cylindrical penholder
No. 3038. A very light yellowish-gray is seen in No.
13253, and an opaque olive-gray in No. 3124.

Brown of various shades occurs. Pale brown trans-
parent material of horn-like consistency is very charac-
teristic. It is shown in No. 3255, an ornamented musical
stone. Darker tints are shown in Nos, 3246 and 13047,
and are specially apt to occur as s tamings or veins in
material of other colors — green, yellow, white, as is seen
in Nos. 3077. 3062, and 3249. Tints of gray and brown in
irregular mixtures are often found in nephrites that have
been exposed to great heat or that have long lain in the
earth, in contact perhaps with other substances, such as the
ancient Chinese pieces to which Dr, Bushel! has given the
name “tomb jades.” In such specimens are found grayish-
and brownish -yellows, often with veinings or stainings of
russet or dead- oak-leaf brown. Nos, 13167, 13 J 58, and
13200 are typical of this class.

All the foregoing colors are, however, comparatively rare,
the most typical nephrites being of some shade of green.
Olive-green is seen in Nos. 3160 and 3205 ; seaweed-green
in Nos. 13055; 13212, 13118, and others; golden

emerald-given as in No. 13035 ; spinach-green as in Nos.
3018 and 13056; sage-green as in Nos. 3183, 3051, 13095,
13175 ; light sage-green, 3025 and 13082 ; dark sage-green,
3003 and 13054; and dark-green to greenish-black as in
Nos. 3125, 13005, and many others.

■JADE AS A MINERAL.

Many of these green colors occur very uniformly in
considerable masses of the mineral. Again, two or more
tints are found commingled, and such varieties have been
likened by the Maoris to 1 ■ moss seen at the bottom of a
pool of limpid water.” This description might apply to
No. 3062 and others. The rich, transparent emerald-green
of the fei-ts' ui jadeite is not found of equal purity in
nephrite, those which approximate to this color- having
always a yellowish cast.

The entire Collection was arranged on a color basis
only ; that is, the specimens regardless of locality or
substance were classified according to the various colors
and tints, and formed a series presenting an almost con-
tinuous gradation from white to black. The nephrites
predominated, in whites with tints of gray or green, and
nearly all the dark grass- or sage-green or the grays
resulting from inclusions of chromic iron or other materials
in the white magma; the brilliant greens, emerald -greens,
and light greens in a white field belonged to the jadeite
group.

The following notes specially prepared for this work by
Professor F. \V. Clarke, Chief Chemist to the United States
Geological Survey, explain all that is known as to the
origin of the various colors observed in jadeite and
nephrite, which may be considered as natural colors— that
is, those produced at the time of crystallization of the
minerals and due to their peculiar chemical composition or
to original inclusions within their substances.

NOTES ON THE COLOR OF JADE.

Absolutely pure jadeite should be white, without a tinge
of color. So also an ideal nephrite, containing only lime
and magnesia, should be colorless. The colors which
actually exist are due to admixtures of other substances,
and in general terms they are not difficult to explain.
Occasionally, however, anomalies seem to exist. At ail
events the analytical data which are given do not in every
case account for the color or lack of color observed.

JADE AS A MINERAL.

The colorific agents to which jacle owes its different hues
are mainly the compounds or iron, of manganese, and of
chromium. Manganese is relatively unimportant. Were
silicates of manganese present in sufficient quantities they
would impart to jade a pinkish or amethystine tint ; but
in all observed cases they serve merely to modify the
colors produced by iron. The latter are enfeebled by the
presence of manganese, but not to any very great degree in
this group of minerals. Free oxides of manganese are
black ; and they in small amounts might give a grayish
cast to jade or even appear as black stainings. Finely
disseminated chromite may also account for black and
gray colorations ; but chromium is much more important
as the source of the brilliant emerald-green of certain
jadeites. This particular tint is probably always due to
chromium : which has been repeatedly identified in the jade
by Damour, by von Fellenberg, and by myself ; although
in the analyses of material from the Bishop Collection its
determination seems to have been overlooked or neglected.

To the compounds of iron most of the colorations of jade
are due. As included magnetite, finely subdivided, iron
may give black and gray tintings. As ferric hydroxide it
produces yellows and browns. Ferrous silicates yield
colorations ranging from pale green to almost black, and
ferric silicates offer shades of yellow, brown, and black.
Some silicates of iron are blue, but this tint is not common.
Since iron may occur in more than one condition in a
single specimen of jade, it is evident that a great variety
of blendings are possible, and that the amount of iron
present will not alone account for the color seen. In
general, the green jades, excluding tile emerald-green, owe
their color to ferrous silicates; and the quantity of the
latter determines the depth of the shade. With ferric
silicates in small amount yellows and browns appear; and
these, commingled with the ferrous greens, may give many
intermediate shades. Ordinary bottle glass, green and
brown, offers good examples of the character of the colors
which are here seen separately; and it is easy to realize
how a blending of the two in one melting-pot would yield

JADE AS A MINERAL.

a wide range of hues ; brown and green tending in part to
neutralize each other. In the coarser varieties of bottle
glass the colors appear to advantage only by transmitted
light ; by reflected light the material is black or nearly so.
Since jade is not transparent it is seen only by reflected
light, and dark shades are produced by relatively small
amounts of the colorific agent.

Although the principles thus laid down concerning the
colorations due to iron are simple enough, their application
to the actual analyses is exceedingly difficult. In general,
the white or light-colored jades are low, and the darker
specimens high in iron. In this statement surface stain-
ings are left out of account. The difficulty about inter-
preting analyses more closely is due to our lack of knowl-
edge as to the way in which the iron is actually com-
bined ; the representation of it as oxides being but a
conventional and partial statement of the truth. Thus
a jade might contain 1.60 of ferric oxide, and 0.72 of
ferrous, and this could mean one of several things. The
two oxides might be united as magnetite, forming black
inclusions, and giving a gray coloration. Or both might
be combined as silicates, with another result as to color.
Or the ferrous oxide might represent a ferrous silicate,
while the ferric oxide was combined with water in the
form of rust. To actually determine tlie true state of
affairs would be difficult, and in some cases even hardly
possible. In fact, all three of the conditions above sug-
gested might coexist, and then their disentanglement would
be almost hopeless.

Upon careful scrutiny of the analyses various anomalies
appear which so far are not explainable by the evidences
now in the hands of the writer. Take for example the
four following cases, and contrast the proportion of iron
with the reported color :

No, 131 0311 — 4.10 per cent, ferric oxide. Milky white.

No. 13346 — 4.38 *' 1

No. 13006 — 3.00 “ 11

No. 3135 — 3.64

Sea w ecd-g ree n, cl on 0 e cl
brown.

Pea-green,

Dark greenish -black.

with

JADE AS A MlNBfckE-

These differences of tint are .extraordinary. First, a
sample high in iron is white, and anotlier somewhat lower
in iron is nearly black. Ferrous oxide is not reported in
any of the four, and yet greens appear in three of the
specimens. It would seem on the face of the reports as if
ferrous iron had been neglected, all the iron having been
estimated in the ferric state. But this supposition does not
account for xso. 13192H, which, upon general principles,
ought to be deeply colored.

In other cases the results obtained by analysis are more
satisfactory. For example, four specimens of jade are
described as sea weed -green, and their contents of Iron and
manganese appear as follows :

No. 13311

Ferric oxide.
4.93

Ferrous oxide,
0.11

Manganese oxide.

No. 13340

4.28

* . .

trace

No. 13313

4.64

0.16

0.38

No. 13118

3,39

0.85

0,22

Here there is a decided family resemblance, although the
indications are for brown tints rather than the green which
actually occurs. But, as has been already indicated, the
mode of combination of the iron is uncertain ; and perhaps
a more careful scrutiny of the samples would explain the
colors found. On this subject the last word has evidently
not been said.

Concerning some of the more unusual and delicate shades
which occur in jadeite and nephrite there is little to say.
The evidence for their interpretation is lacking. Possibly
some of the pale yellows may be due to titanium ; but the
blues and lavenders are unexplained. Some silicates of
iron are blue or bluish, and vanadium might give similar
lines. Grlancophane, which Professor Penfield has Identi-
fied in some of the nephrites is often blue or lavender, cro-
cidolite is dark blue, and the presence of either would
account for the observed phenomenon. Brown stain i tigs
and streakings are caused by ferric hydroxide ; and sur-
face blackening is often attributed to carbon derived from
organic matter. In some cases a grayish tint may be pro-

SIS^Rts

^ ..1

JADE AS A MINERAL.

duced by microscopic inclusions of mica. Such inclusions
have been observed, but they are not very common.

In addition to the natural colors treated of by Professor
Clarke, there is another group of colors which are due to
agencies of various sorts affecting the jade after its forma-
tion, such as weathering, absorption of coloring materials
either natural or artificial, and the action of fire. To some
one of these agencies or to a combination of them are due
most of the veins or stablings, chiefly in tones of gray,
brown, and black, to which reference has already been
made.

The presence in worked jade of these colors, streaks,
etc., is not always a detriment, inasmuch as lapidary-
artists, especially in China, are in the habit of carefully
selecting such parts of a specimen as have stains, tints, and
markings of brown and yellow, and very skilfully taking
advantage of the coloring to add an additional charm to
the leaf, the finger-tip, fruit, or any ornament which is to
be given a prominent place in the perfected object. This
adaptation of material to design, and of design to material,
is splendidly exemplified in the Collection.

The effects of weathering and the absorption of natural
stains are best exemplified by the group of specimens in
the Collection to which the name of Tomb Jades has been
applied, and to which a separate chapter will be devoted
in this volume. Such objects are all of great antiquity,
and have been subjected to the altering agencies during
long burial in the earth in tombs or in the ruins of ancient
cities.

A natural staining may be the result of the infiltration
of oxide of iron, manganese, or other substances, while the
jade is still in the bed-rock ; or while it is being rolled
along in the bed of a river after being detached from the
or lastly, while buried in the ground.

Another remarkable change of color is that due to cal-
cination, generally the result of conflagration. A notable
example of this, a small quadrangular vase, No. 3217, was
recovered after the looting and destruction of the Summer

JADE AS A MINERAL.

Palace at Peking in 1860* In this object the lower part is
a light grayish-green, with a black staining that is due to
infiltration in the cracks where the piece had been subjected
to slight heat or staining from pyroligneous and other
acids produced by the conflagration, but was not brought
into direct contact with the Are. Tlie upper part, however,
which has suffered actual contact, changed to a yellowish
but opaque substance, resembling calcined bone* An
extreme example of tins kind is the tiny incense-burner,
No. 3017, which has been so much altered as to have lost
almost all trace of its ever having been jade. Its delicate
carving remains, however, and the polish is still there to a
great extent ; but the whole piece is now a minutely
crackled grayish-white opaque substance, almost resem-
bling a jasper-like substance like porcellanite.

DIAPHANEITY.

The degree of transparency of the jade minerals varies
considerably with the color and structure of individual
specimens. Unpolished specimens of all colors are at best
only translucent and more commonly quite opaque except
in very thin splinters. But the removal of the inequalities
of the surface by polishing greatly heightens the trans-
lucency*

Jade He is on the whole less translucent than nephrite.
The light-colored varieties are generally subtranslucent to
translucent, having in this respect much the character of
chalcedony. But some of the white jadeites are quite
opaque, and on the other hand in some of the coarser-
grained varieties such as No* 13009 single perfectly trans-
parent crystals of considerable dimensions may be seen
embedded in the translucent matrix*

In green jadeites a sub translucent character is more com-
mon, extending in the chloromelanite variety to a more or
less pronounced opacity. But the rare emerald-green
jadeite as seen in the Kleczkowsky jewels, No. 13212, is
sometimes almost perfectly transparent, rivalling the
emerald in both color and water.

JADE AS A MINERAL.

The nephrites may be more uniformly described as
translucent, the degree of translucency depending on the
depth of the color and the thickness of the specimen.
White, semi-transparent varieties are sometimes found, as
in the little tea-cup No. 3147, which is so transparent that
print held against the back of the specimen may be read
through a thickness of 2 or 3 mm. of material.

The same quality of semi-transparency is seen in some of
the green varieties, notably those from New Zealand, which
the Maoris have picturesquely likened to “a clear stream
on whose bottom green moss and grasses luxuriate.

Such semi-transparent or highly translucent specimens
are termed Precious nephrite , but their quality never
equals that of the emerald-green jadeites. Many of the
more massive pieces of worked nephrite appear opaque
because of their thickness only, the edges or thin fragments
always showing a pronounced translucency.

LUSTRE.

The lustre of both jadeite and nephrite on fresh fractures
is dull and wax-like, with very few reflecting surfaces.
Polished jadeite has ordinarily a vitreous lustre, while
nephrite when polished frequently exhibits an oily lustre
as if it had been rubbed with oil. This oily appearance is
highly characteristic of many of the green nephrites.

OPALESCENCE.

Opalescence, lacking however the play of color, is some-
times to be observed on polished specimens of both jadeite
and nephrite. It may be likened to the light effect
obtained when some finely veined, naturally colored, tians-
lucent, oriental chalcedonies are viewed by transmitted
light. An admirable example illustrating this property is
the framed jadeite screen No. 131921. The specimen is a
mixture of large irregular patches of a white and a laven-
der-tinted material through which are long irregular vein-
ings of rich, translucent sea-green, in part almost opaque
when quite thick. By reflected light a large part of the

JADE AS A MINERAL.

surface exhibits a pinkish-lavender opalescence, which is
remarkably pleasing and beautiful.

SHEEN.

It is characteristic of many minerals, such as crocidolite,
chrysotile, and satin-spar (fibrous gypsum), which have a
parallel -fibrous structure, that on polished surfaces the
light is reflected with a peculiar lustre comparable to the
sheen of raw silk. It results from a distortion of the
light-figure reflected from the uneven surface of the indi-
vidual fibre. When such substances are cut with a domed
surface — en cabachon , as it is called — the reflection takes
the form of a band or streak of light which changes its
position as the stone is moved. Nephrite, owing to its
fibrous structure, sometimes exhibits such a sheen, occa-
sionally so strongly as to suggest the possibility of obtain-
ing by proper cutting a jade cat's-eye. In rare instances
where the fibres are twisted and curved into approximately
circular forms an effect like that termed asterism by jewel-
lers is produced.

Numerous examples of this quality of sheen are con-
tained in the Bishop Collection. A typical example of
sheen is No. 13248, a nephrite hatchet found among the
remains of the ancient pile-dwellings at Neufchatel. In
this beautiful gray shimmering sheen is seen on both faces,
evidently caused by the reflection of the light from the
many minute lamellm or folia of which the piece is made
up. The crude nephrite hatchet No. 13221, from Neuf-
chatel has one black weathered surface, but the reverse has
a remarkably brilliant sheen apparently due to minute
fractures nearly parallel to its surface. Perhaps the most
beautiful example in the Collection illustrating the sheen
is No. 13102B, the nephrite celt from the North Island,
New Zealand. By reflected light it shows a silky struc-
ture. The material is as finely fibrous in one direction as a
compact New Zealand actinolite. It exhibits a sheen and
a chatoyancy comparable to that of a greenish chrysoberyl
cat’s-eye if cut into a gem of similar form. No. 13231, the

Wigrog

JADE AS A MINERAL.

lake-dwellers’ chisel from Neufcliatel, exhibits a brown
pearly sheen by reflected liglit, while the knife from the
same locality, No. 1322a, has a peculiar green sheen. A
beautiful satiny sheen in large patches due to the reflec-
tion of light from tiie large fibres may be seen in the five
wine-cups Nos. 13257. 13258, and 13244 A, B, C.

Peculiar internal reflections due to other causes are
found in both jadeite and nephrite. In the sinewy oi
horn-like varieties of nephrite the parting planes whicl:
traverse the mineral in various directions often cause an
almost white, a golden, or a yellow reflection. The same
effect is produced where the mineral has been bruised by
pounding with a stone or other blunt instrument, the frac-
ture surfaces, which are generally round in shape, giving
dull reflections.

Again, inclusions of foreign minerals such as the very
common black cystals of chromite or mica scales are the
cause of characteristic internal reflections.

CRYSTALLINE SYSTEM AND OPTICAL PROPERTIES.

Jadeite , by Professor 8. L. Pen field.

Except for the information gained by the study of thii:
sections under the microscope, our knowledge of the
crystalline character of jade has- up to the present time
been limited, as distinct crystals have not been available
for study. The angle of tiie prismatic cleavage has beer
given by Des Cloizea'ux * as 85°20 . by Krennerf as S6°55'
and by Arzruni % ns 88°5G to 87°20 (Note). Thanks to the
careful observations of Mr. George F. Kuuz. attention has
been called to a specimen of jadeite from Tibet (No. 13321
of the Collection), which in places possesses a somewhn
coarser crystalline structure than the mineral usually ex
Mbits. On breaking up some of this material two crystals
were found, from which the data necessary for the deter

# Bulletin de la Societe Minercdogique de France, Yol. 4, p. 158, 1881-

f Flugbkit, April, 1883,

j: Z disc h rift fltr Ethnologic, Yol, 15, p,186, 1883.

Hate; For a full list of observations of this angle see the table annexed t
this chapter,

JADE AS A MINERAL,

mination of the exact crystalline character of the mineral
could be determined. The crystals were prisms measuring
about 2 mm. in length and 0.5 mm. in diameter, and the
isolated ones were terminated only at one end by crystal
faces. They were colorless and had a vitreous lustre.
They belong to the monoclinic system of crystallization,
and their habit is represented by Figs. 1 and 2. The forms
that were observed are similar to those which occur on pyro-
xene and segerite, and are as follows : The orthopinacoid
a (100), two prisms m (HO) and n (130), with two faces of
the monoclinic pyramid s (111) forming the termination.

Considering the small size of the crystals, the reflections

Fi Q-i

Fiq. 2

from their faces were good, and the axial ratio may be
considered therefore as very nearly exact. The following
axial ratio was derived from the measurements marked in
the accompanying table by an asterisk. For the sake of
comparison there are also given the axial ratios of the
closely related minerals of the pyroxene group. ^Egerite
from the nepheline syenite of southern Norway by Brog-
ger. * Pyroxene (variety augite) from Vesuvius by von
Rath+. Spodumene from Norwich, Mass., by J. D.
Dana % .

* Zeitschrift fttr Miiieralogie und Krystal lographie, XVI. , p. 318, 1889.
f Poggendorf s Annalen, Erganzungs, Band 6, p. 340, 1873,

X Mineralogy, Sixth edition, p, 36fh

JADE AS A MINERAL,

a /> c

P = 100 A 001

Judeite

1.103 1 : 0.013

72°44i

yEgerile

1.097 : 1 : 0.601

73° 9'

Pyroxene

1.092 : 1 : 0.589

74"10'

Spodumene

1.124 ; ] : 0.6315

69=40'

The measurements that were made

are as fol)o\

Measured

Calculated

a Am,

100 A 110 = 46=39 *

m A m.

110 A HO = 93° 38' -93° 10

93°5S'

m Am,

110 All0 = 86 t 51'-87 e 13'

87 s 3'

a A n,

100 A 130 = 73=35'

72 c 2fT

n a n,

130 A 130 = 34=43'

35° 8'

n An,

130 A 130 = 145=26'

144 c 52'

* A*.

ill A ill = 61°13'*-61 Q 5'

61°12'

a A »,

100 A ill = 76°56'-77 p 10'

76 D 50 r

m A ».

ilO a ill = 58°23' # -58 g 13'

58°23 r

m AA

iio a in - I03°3r-i03°i0'

102°2li'

The close crystallographic relationship between jadeite,
segerite, and pyroxene is shown not only by the similarity
in their axial ratios, but also by the fact that their crystals
have almost the same habit. A common development of
the segerite crystals from Norway is exactly like Fig. 1,

•

in !

■

Fig ; 3

and Fig. 3 represents the ordinary habit of angite (pyr-
oxene) crystals.

The optical properties of the crystals correspond to
monoclinic symmetry, A crystal lying on its pinaeoid
face a (100) shows an extinction parallel to its prismatic
edges when examined under the microscope in polarized
light. In convergent light one of the axes of a biaxial in-

JADE AS A MINERAL.

terference figure may be seen rather near the limit of field*
The plane of the optical axes is the clinopinacoid (010).
When supported, with t lie symmetry plane horizontal, in
a liquid of high index of refraction, the extinction angle
was found to be 34* from the vertical axis in the obtuse
angle /?.* The divergence of the optical axis 2V was
found to be approximately 70°. This was determined by
supporting a short section of a crystal in oil by means of
the device described by Professor C. Klein f, and turning
until the optical axes came into the centre of the held.
The direction of one of the optical axes coincides almost
exactly with the vertical axis.

Twinning has been observed by Max Bauer £ hi
jadeite from Tammaw in Upper Burma* It follows one of
tlie usual twin laws of pyroxene, twinning plane the basal
piuacoid, and is repeated in thin lamellm, producing what
are known as poly synthetic twins similar to those common
in plagioclase feldspar. Twinned prisms were frequently
found bent throughout and fringed at the ends* It appears
that the twins were most numerous in the portions that
had suffered the greatest crushing, and were absent where
the effects of pressure were not well marked* We must
conclude, therefore, that under favorable conditions crush-
ing and pressure would produce in the jadeite a rearrange-
ment of the molecules into twins similar to that observed
in calc it e* This, however, must have happened only in rare
cases, for it lias not hitherto been observed*

Nephrite, by Dr. Charles Palache *

All mineralogists agree In classifying nephrite as a
variety of the monoclinic amphibole aetinoUte, whose
chemical, and* in general, physical properties as well, it
possesses. The distinction of nephrite as a variety is based
on its structure alone, it being characterized by a very fine

* For other observations of this angle see the table given below*

t Siizimgsberlchte tier Kbniglich Preusslschen Akadcmie der TVlssen sell af ten
zu Berlin, Vol. 24 ? p. 435, 1891.

t Jahrbuch far Mineral ogle. 1899, Vol. 1, p* 21*

18 JADE AS A MINERAL.

fibrous texture, the fibres being generally so curved and
interwoven as to render it exceedingly tough. The extreme
fineness of the fibres makes it difficult, even with high
magnification in thin section, to obtain satisfactory ob-
servations of the cleavage, and the same cause, together
with the frequently curved character of the fibres, makes
the extinction angles somewhat uncertain. Most of the ob-
servations in the annexed table to which any degree of
reliability may be attached were made upon larger isolated
crystals of actinolite embedded in the nephrite substance.

The angles given by the principal text-books for actino-
lite, and therefore to be accepted for nephrite, are as
follows :

1. — E. S. Dana, System of Mineralogy, 1892, p. 389.

2. — Hiutze, Handbuck der Mineralogie, 1894, p. 1186 ff.

3. — Levy et Lacroix, Les Miueraux des Roclies, 1886, p. 144.

Prism (cleavage) angle.

Angle of extinction to cleav-
age in elinopinacoid section.

1.—

55*49'

15*

2.“

55°49 f

16*- 18° 30'

3. —

55*49'

15*

Dana considers that some nephrite may belong to the
amphibole tremoltte , the extinction angle of which is
10 ^- 18 °.

The cleavage angle and optical properties, expecially the
extinction angle in sections parallel to the elinopinacoid,
of jadeite and nephrite, are the most important properties
for their determination in microscopic sections. The first
of the two tables which follow contains all the observations
of these two values given by various authors in the large
literature of “Jade,” and the second contains a record of
the extinction angles measured by Mr. R. IX George from
the micro-sections made from specimens in the Bishop
collection and studied by Professor J, P. hidings.

The measurements given in Table I. of both cleavage
and extinction vary widely in their reliability. Observa-
tions made in thin sections of minerals are liable to an
error, which cannot be checked, due to imperfect orienta-
tion of the section to the direction desired. This error is

to a certain extent- eliminated if a large number of observa-
tions of different crystals in the section is taken ; but in
many of the observations quoted there is no satisfactory
evidence that care in this direction has been taken.

The observations are arranged in the table in order of the
date of publication, the jadeites being grouped separately
from the nephrites. The angle given under the heading
of “ extinction ' 5 is, in all cases where not otherwise stated,
the angle of extinction against the trace of the cleavage in
sections parallel to the clinopinacoid. In Table II. the
specimens are grouped, first as jadeites and nephrites, and
then according to locality, with descending size of the
extinction angle.

-TABLE 05* CLEAVAGE ANT) EXTINCTION ANGLES-(6'<m<»n«<K*).

P:4

■

H v

pwM

V*>* ■W+Z .C; I

fefj saS

mmm

;: - : g%b

' 5 .

■ V ;®1

k=. • £

— i

_cs

n+i

O EJ&S

1J|

G f— ■ or

3 r$
o v

■ s-g

e P

£ p

o£

ftB

(3^

*”5

*T 3

s 3

•"5

cs _ -

J'g

*-r 5

1 —

i-H

Q? T 1

fcja S z

|« ;

bf.

i-i

TABLE OF CLEAVAGE AND EXTINCTION ANGLES— (Continued).

TABLE OF CLEAVAGE AND EXTINCTION ANGLES — (Continued).

11 14 “ Crystals em-

bedded in above

II.— TABLE OF EXTINCTION ANGLES.

'VS

I ■

Se5

1 1

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1 6

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S I « i

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ll l| I i I 1 i i t

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*fis 1

ISP

a -

Q b* ^

SB 1

0 QO

u * 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

T4 T* t— ■*-( T-l 1-1^

1 ! | I I I I 1 1 1 1 1 «

1 « ci ci ci « CV ci « Ci oi « « ®*

1 I

+a -j

U § 2 1 ■= S

H s. „ | . 1 i 1 ! ! ! J

1 ? 1 5 : # ! | | | 5 | 1

* 1 £ 1 J £ E * J S £

Locality

s s .a 1 | ! ! 1 I 1 ! 4 1

g a g assesss!--

s s 3 S 3 S s B 3 2 £ $ |

1 1 i iimiiiii
|

'll S ! 1 i S 1 ! a 8 s i

(bailiH

II.— TABLE OF EXTINCTION ANGLES.

JADE AS A MINERAL.

STRUCTURE.

Reference lias already been made to the fact that both
jadeite and nephrite are known only as massive aggregates
of crystalline particles and never as complete crystal indi-
viduals. The structure of these aggregates varies consid-
erably, and presents some characters which are peculiar to
one or the other mineral ; but in far the greater number of
cases the grain of the mass is too fine to permit of the
recognition of the character of the individuals composing
it by the unaided eye or even with the assistance of a lens,
la such cases it is necessary to have recourse to the micro-
scope, studying the structure in thin section. The paper
by Professor Iddings on the Microscopical Petrography of
Jade, which follows, treats in full of the characters thus
observed which are among the most important means of
distinguishing between the jade minerals, and throw a
flood of light on the origin and history of both jadeite
and nephrite.

The macroscopic structural features are of less funda-
mental importance and may be dismissed with a much
briefer treatment.

Jadeite . — The structure of jadeite is either granular or
fibrous, the former being the more characteristic. It may be
studied to the best advantage in such thin, translucent,
highly polished objects as the bowls, cups, and plates which
are so abundantly represented in the Bishop Collection.
On holding such a specimen against a light each crystal
composing it stands out from its neighbors quite sharply
owing to the fact that the light strikes the surface and
cleavages of eacli one at a different angle, giving each a
slightly different appearance. Thus examined, we see that
the individual grains are sometimes of prismatic shape,
that is, with one diameter much longer than the others ;
sometimes equidimensional, with diameters up to 3 mm.
in exceptional cases such as X o. 13206B.

Generally the grains interlock at their edges, the bound-
ary between any two being jagged and irregular in the ex-
treme. In very rare cases, however, as in No. 13323, already

JADE AS A MINERAL.

referred to in tlie paper by Penfield, the individual grains
of jadeite do not come into immediate contact, but each has
developed its own crystal boundaries, and the complete
crystals are cemented by a small amount of an unde-
termined interstitial mineral.

In those specimens in which the grains are prismatic the
prisms are more or less interwoven and often curved; when
the prismatic development is so pronounced that the indi-
viduals become fibrous the structure is best described as
felted, since the fibres intermingle in tire most confused
manner ; at the same time the grain becomes finer, so that
the eye cannot readily separate the particles.

In the granular jadeites the grain varies even in parts cf
the same specimen from the coarsest to the finest, patches
of large granules often occurring like “eyes’’ in a fine-
grained mass.

A rather fine granular structure of very uniform char-
acter is the ordinary and typical structure for jadeite ;
distinctly fibrous specimens in which the grain is coarse
enough to be distinguished even with the lens being so rare
as to be noteworthy. The beads which form the string
numbered 3095 show this latter character well.

Nephrite , — The structure of nephrite is characteristically
fibrous and of such fine grain that the individual fibres are
but rarely visible except under the microscope. The
fibres are arranged in the aggregate in many ways : parallel
to one another over considerable areas, tufted or in fan-
sliaped groups, or curved, twisted, interlocked, and felted
in most intricate fashion. But all these arrangements of
fibres are visible under the microscope only, and the coarser
visible structures are due to groups of fibres although
dependent largely for their origin on the intimate internal
structure.

The visible structures are of several distinct types. A
marked bedded or slaty structure results from the parallel-
ism of the fibres in distinct layers, adjacent layers having
a different direction of the fibres. As a consequence of
this structure the mass can be cut more easily along the
plane of the “bedding" than across it, and it is a notice-

JADE AS A MINERAL*

able fact that in art objects the artist generally arranges
his designs so that the principal cutting will be across this
bedding* thus making the object stronger and more endur-
ing ; and in the making of cylinders and vases from which
a central core is to be removed by the use of a cylindrical
drill, the core can be more readily broken out or detached
from the mass* The same is true of the prehistoric work-
man, many of the objects left by him showing that the iiat
sides are parallel with the bedding of the material because
the fashioning of the celt or other object was not only more
easily done in this way, but the workman was surer of suc-
cess in the operation,

A sinewy or hornlike appearance is extremely common
and characteristic in nephrite, being visible on both rough
and polished surfaces. It seems to be due to the grouping
of fibres in tufted or fan-shaped bundles, sometimes of con-
siderable size and separated from one another by indistinct
parting surfaces which are often curved into irregular
forms*

An apparent granular structure in some nephrites is
shown to be due generally to the alteration of original
jadeite to nephrite, each relatively larger granule of jadeite
becoming a mass of interwoven fibres which retains some of
its individuality. The great significance of this alteration
is fully treated in the following section on the microstruc-
ture of jade*

A peculiar type of nephrite which markedly differs from
the normal in its appearance is that termed by collectors
Puddingstone Jade * Jiy transmitted light specimens of
this variety show nodular areas varying from the size of a
pin up to two inches across of a golden-yellow nephrite
cemented together by a dark olive-green variety of the
same mineral which occasionally has brighter grass-green
streaks. This apparent nodular structure is evidently due
simply to color differences, the result probably of altera-
tions in the state of oxidation of the iron in the mineral,
progressing from numerous isolated centres. While there-
fore not strictly a structural modification of nephrite, the
variety is so distinct as to be held worthy of more than

36 JADE AS A MINERAL.

passing notice. The specimens in this Collection which
illustrate this peculiar feature are Xos. 3059, 3060, 3173,
3238, and 3034.

The compact texture and the extraordinary toughness of
both jadeite and nephrite are clearly due directly to the
character of their structure, the intimate intergrowth of
their constituent particles, whether fibrous or granular,
producing a similar result in these respects. But the fibrous
nature of the nephrite substance gives it properties of
cohesion altogether superior to those of jadeite, as will be
shown in a later chapter of this work.

MICROSCOPICAL PETROGRAPHY OF JADE.

BY JOSEPH 1\ IDDINGS.

The microscopical study of the jade in the Bishop Collec-
tion was made upon 170 thin sections, which were prepared
from pieces sawn from the jade objects, and represent 93
different specimens. Of these, 23 are jadeite, and the re-
mainder nephrite ; a number consisting of both minerals.
The microscopical investigation was undertaken as a purely
petrograpliical study, without reference to ethnological
theories, and without knowledge as to the localities from
which the specimens were collected. The results are,
therefore, independent of any preconceived ideas regard-
ing the source of the material. With the exception of a
specimen of jadeite containing microscopic garnets, from
Lake Neufchatel, all the specimens examined are so re-
lated petrograpliical ly that they might have been parts of
one and the same mass of rock, Nevertheless, it must not
be forgotten that rocks which are identical mineral ogically
and chemically occur in widely distant parts of the earth.

The pure jadeite specimens consist of precisely similar
pale-green pyroxene, which is almost colorless in thin sec-
tion. The slight variations in size of grain are only such
as often occur in different parts of one rock mass.

The coarser-grained forms that are microscopically alike
are from China (324S, 13192D, 13206B).; and from Burma
(131020 and possibly 13215). While another form from
Burma (13180) and one from Mexico (13242) differ only
slightly from these. Other jadeites from China and Burma
are identical with one another and are somewhat finer-
grained (3126, 3127, 3095, 13195, 13243, 13255, 13364, 13365,
13368, 13373),

A review of the specimens of nephrite shows that those

varieties exhibiting most clearly the metamorphism of
jadeite into nephrite come from China, Microscopically
identical nephrites, consisting of confused aggregations of
amphibole fibres, having a faint suggestion of the patches
derived from previous jadeite come from British Colum-
bia (13207), Lake Constance (13251), China (3119, 18007C,
13007G-, 1S262E), New Zealand (130SS), British Columbia or
Alaska (13122), and China or possibly from India (13095).
Nephrites that are microscopically alike in being composed
of parallel fibres, that are sometimes curved, are from
Siberia (18218), New Zealand (13118, 13030), India (13128),
and Lake Neufchatel (13233, 1324S), Another group that
have like microscopical structure includes specimens from
New Caledonia (13216), Siberia (13246), Irkutsk, Siberia
(13211), India (3123, 13095), and China (3242).

From these examples it is evident that varieties of jade
from widely distant parts of the earth, when studied in
thin sections, are in some cases identical, even in the most
microscopic detail. But it is to be remarked that the pro-
nounced differences in shades of color that characterize
different specimens of jade when studied in mass, disap-
pear almost completely when the jade is cut into sections
0.001 of an inch in thickness. When the color is intense
in the mass it may be recognized ns slight coloring of the
almost colorless minerals. But less-pronounced variations
of color are not distinguished in the thin sections.

It is also to be noted that jade from some countries
varies in its composition and microstructure from jadeite to
fibrous nephrite ; similar variations occurring in different
countries.

The following is the systematic description of the thin
sections studied microscopically. They are arranged with-
out regard to locality, but according to their mineralogieal
composition and microstrueture. The jadeites are de-
scribed first, and then the transitional modifications that
demonstrate the metamorphism of the jadeite into ne-
phrite. Then the more and more fibrous varieties of
Owing to the microscopical identity of some of

JADE AS A MINERAL.

the specimens, certain of them are classed together and
described at one time.

The photomicrographs which illustrate this part of the
work were taken with oxyhydrogen zircon light on ortho-
chromatic plates, using a yellow screen. They nearly all
represent the appearance of the thin sections of jade as seen
in plane polarized light between crossed niools. and have a
magnification of 60 diameters.

No. 13215. The sections which exhibit most plainly the
true character of the pyroxene mineral or jadeite are those
made from 13215, The thin section, .022 mm, thick, is
transparent in part, and partly greenish white. Under the
microscope the rock is seen to consist of an aggregation of
irregularly shaped crystals of nearly colorless pyroxene
with many cracks. The cracks follow the outlines of the
crystals, the prismatic cleavage, and a transverse parting,
probably basal. In places the pyroxene crystals become
long prisms, and lie at all angles in the section ; sometimes
being grouped in fan -like aggregates or bundles. In several
places they lie embedded in a colorless mineral, which acts
as a matrix for the pyroxene crystals. In these places
they have sharply defined crystal forms. The long prisms
are well developed in the prismatic zone, and have the or-
tliopinacoid (100) and unit prisms (110); and sometimes the
clinopinacoid (010) less pronounced. Thus they are some-
times flattened parallel to the orthopinacoid. Terminal
planes were not observed. Cross- sections exhibit distinct
prismatic cleavage. The form of the crystals is similar to
that of legerite, from which this pyroxene differs by being
colorless in thin sections. Cross-sections exhibit the
emergence of an optic axis when examined in convergent
polarized light. Longitudinal sections yield a maximum
angle of extinction of about 35 degrees. Hence the angle
between the optic axes is about 70 degrees. Longitudinal
sections that have been cut nearly perpendicular to an
optic axis exhibit the plane of the optic axes parallel to th.
side of the prism, indicating a monosymmetric crystal.
One of these crystal sections also exhibits narrow lamellae,

JADE AS A JtfIXEBAL.

parallel to the sides of the prism, which appear to be the
result o£ twinning, and a transverse parting nearly at right
angles to the prism.

These crystals, magnified 60 diameters, are shown in
photomicrographs No* 13216a and 13315b in the accompany-
ing Plate A. Several small cross-sections are seem The
matrix appears as a uniformly* gray mineral. Photomicro-
graph iso, 13215c in the same plate shows the granular
portion of the same rock magnified the same amount. It
consists wholly of colorless jadeite, and was photographed
in polarized light between crossed nicols, In photomicro-
graph No. 13215a the nicols were nearly parallel.

The colorless mineral acts as a cement or matrix for the
jadeite prisms, and appears to consist of relatively large
individuals, not an aggregate of small ones. It has a low
index of refraction, and very low double refractory. In
places it is twinned in polysynthetic lamellae, making 90
degrees with one another. The exact nature of this
mineral is not determinable by optical means alone. It is
possibly analcite; this is further indicated by the chemical
analysis.

No. 13206B. The coarsest -grained variety examined is
13200B. It is an aggregate of colorless jadeite crystals that
can be seen without the aid of a lens; the largest crystals
being 3 mm. long. The size of the crystals varies greatly,
from that just mentioned to liricroscopic dimensions. The
large and small crystals are Intimately mingled without
any definite arrangement, or any suggestion of a porphy-
ritic structure. The sections of some of the large crystals
are nearly free from cleavage cracks, while others are
crowded with them. The section is about .055 mm. thick,
and the polarization colors are brilliant, ranging into
yellows and reds of the second order. This indicates a
double refraction of about ,019. Some of the crystals ex-
hibit a slight undulatory extinction. Cross-sections show
that the prismatic cleavage is perfect. The substance of
the jadeite is very pure and free from inclusions in most
crystals, a few show minute specks that seem to be in-

JADE AS A MINERAL.

ci pie nfc decomposition, which results in the clouding of the
crystals by particles that appear white by incident light.
These crystals are not twinned, and there are no other
minerals present. The chemical analysis shows that the
rock is 98 per cent, pure jadeite.

No. 3248. Another coarse-grained form is represented
by the so-called galvanized or frosted specimen, 3248. The
crystals are about the size of the largest of that just de-
scribed (13306B), or 3 mm. in diameter. There are fewer
small crystals. U adulatory extinction is a pronounced
characteristic. The rock has evidently been subjected to
great straining forces. Large cross-sections with prismatic
cleavage cracks resolve themselves between crossed nicols
into aggregates of jadeite with slightly different optical
orientations. They break up into optical “ fields n (Felder
erseheinimgen) and may be traversed by several lines in*
di eating distinct ruptures. In some longitudinal sections
this same mottling is very pronounced, in others it re
sembles more closely the curving mottling of bird’s-eye
maple, so characteristic of all micas. The resemblance is
often deceptive, but other characteristics prove the pyrox-
enic nature of the mineral. There has also been developed
a delicate lamination which is plainly due to twinning in
thin plates parallel to the orthopinacoid. The stria tions
are sometimes straight, sometimes curved. There seems to
be a second twinning inclined to the first, which produces
less distinct s lunations, (This is most likely parallel to the
basal plane.) This appears to be connected to some extent
with the mottled effect. In places the rock has been
crushed and dragged, producing streaks of line grains and
particles of pyroxene, that have the same color, index of
refraction, and double refraction as the large crystals.
Here the pyroxene has been crushed to powder that has
been compacted, and is indistinguishable by the unaided
eye from the other parts of the rock, and is scarcely dis-
tinguishable from the larger crystals without the use of
crossed nicols. The jadeite has been crushed by dynamic
forces without having the crystallographic character

JADE AS A MINERAL.

altered. The rock exhibits a partial dynamic meta-
morphism without any signs of chemical or mineralogieal
metamorphism.

In another thin section of this same specimen (3248) the
large jadeite crystals exhibit the same mottling between
crossed nicols, and twin lamination whose curved forms
bear a direct relation to the lines of rupture in the rock,
where line fragments of jadeite, and brilliantly polarizing
fibres of the same mineral, form veins through the rock
and act as cement between the unbroken larger crystals.

No. 13192D. A rock of almost the same character is
13192D, It consists wholly of irregularly shaped crystals
of colorless jadeite, averaging 2 mm. in size, exhibiting
undulatory extinction and twinned lamination produced
by dynamical stress. There is a small amount of crushed
jadeite as cement. An incipient decomposition lias
clouded the central parts of some crystals to a slight
extent. Another thin section of the same specimen ex-
hibits more of the crushed jadeite, and some of the crystal
grains are colored light green and are faintly pleochroic
between bluish-green and yellowish-green. The color is
not related to any change in the interference phenomenon.
Some of the larger crystals contain numerous fluid in-
clusions which are long and narrow and are arranged
parallel to the axis of the crystal. Where these inclusions
are crowded together there is a clouding similar to that
already alluded to, suggesting that these fluid inclusions
are secondary.

No. 13180. A slightly different modification of the
jadeite aggregate is found in 13180. It consists of large
and small irregular crystals of pyroxene, the small ones
acting as a kind of cement in some parts of the rock. In
■other places there is an approach to an orderly arrange-
ment of the crystals in several directions, the somewhat
prismatic crystals appearing as though woven together.
There are besides acicular microscopic prisms that traverse
the rock in several directions; a number of the needles

JADE AS A MINERAL.

enclosed in one jadeite being parallel to one another.
These needles are colorless ampliibole or actinolite. They
have a lower index of refraction than the pyroxene. Some
of the jadeite crystals are colored green as in the specimen
just described (13192D),

No. 13102C. Coarsely granular jadeite, apparently all
the same mineral. Nothing but jadeite seems to be
present.

Nos. 13364, 13365, 13368, 13373, These sections are
alike in being very pure jadeite, almost entirely free from
inclusions of other material. They consist of irregularly
shaped ankedrons of colorless jadeite, varying in size
from a diameter of 1 mm. to minute microscopic grains.
The grain is not uniform throughout the material, and in
No, 13365 there are prismatic forms and a somewhat
parallel arrangement of the prisms. Pyroxene prismatic
cleavage is pronounced, and extinction angles were
measured as high as 32° and 40°. In 13365 the cross sec-
tion of a microscopic prism shows the presence of the unit
prism and ortkopinacoid in nearly equal development.
The cloudy white color of the specimen is due to micro-
scopic cracks and minute particles whose character is not
determinable. In 1330$ there is a small amount of green
mineral in fine-grained aggregation, somewhat fibrous. It
Is pleoehroic from green to yellow and has a lower refrac-
tion than jadeite. It is the same mineral that occurs in
No. 13371, which is. ampliibole, nephrite.

No. 13195 presents a somewhat laminated modification,
in which the crystals of jadeite are all quite small, grading
to microscopic; the longest crystal being about ,8 mm.
The lamination is due to the nearly parallel arrangement
of some prisms, and to the alternation of layers of coarser
and finer grains. The rock is very fresh and pure, with-
out other constituent minerals, and there is little or no sign
of decomposition or alteration by dynamic forces. Another
section of 13195 shows small aggregates of secondary

JADE AS A MINERAL.

inclusions as clouding in the centre of some of the
crystals.

Nos, 13243 and 13255 are almost identical with the one
last described (13195) in size of crystals, and to a less
extent in the degree of lamination. There is a slight
central clouding in some crystals and a small amount
of crushing. They are wholly jadeite without other
minerals.

No. 3126 is quite the same as the last specimens in size
and aggregation of jadeite crystals, but there are scattered
patches with very irregular outline of another mineral.
The irregular outline is caused by the projection into
this mineral of crystals of jadeite as though into a
cavity. In some cases the rare mineral is crowded with
minute crystals of jadeite. In each patch the mineral
constitutes one individual with one orientation; sometimes
two occur together. It is colorless, with much lower
refraction than the pyroxene, and with moderate double
refraction. The same mineral occurs in other specimens
of jadeite rock. Its mineralogical nature was not made
out, but it is probably a 1 bite.

No. 3127 is quite the same in composition as the last,
but the jadeite crystals are more lath-shaped, with jagged
outline and somewhat parallel arrangement. In places
they are very minute, and carry larger crystals of jadeite,
with no optical distortion; that is, without evidence of
having been strained. They are clouded at the centre.
Parts of tile rock show signs of having been crushed and
dragged. There is a very small amount of the colorless
mineral, which is supposed to be albite.

No, 13336 is a comparatively coarse-grained aggregation
of jadeite crystals, the larger of which are 0.6 mm. in
diameter. The rock is colorless in thin section, with small
spots of clouded material which is grayish-white in in-
cident light. It is almost wholly jadeite, the clouded

JADE AS A MINERAL.

matter being indeterminable and presumably the begin-
nings of decomposition. The grains or anhedrons of
jadeite are irregular in shape, that is, allotriom orphic, and
are of various sizes. In some cases the prismatic cleavage
is distinct. Areas that appear as one crystal often prove
to be compounded of many individuals when seen between
crossed nicols. The variations in grain and the curving,
of some cleavage lines, the mottling of the larger crystals
when viewed between crossed nicols indicating strains
and the first stages of granulation, together with the
streaked arrangement of the smaller anhedrons. prove
that the rock has been subject to forces that have crushed
it to some extent. In places there are patches of a color-
less mineral with lower index of refraction than that of
jadeite, and with the double refraction and polysyntlietic
twinning of plagioclase feldspar. It acts as a matrix in
which small prisms of jadeite lie at all positions, and
against which the jadeite is antomorphic. It exhibits no
signs of alteration, whether of decomposition or of crush-
ing. These facts point to its being of later origin than the
dynamic me tamorpliism of the rock'. But the areas of
feldspar are so small that the evidence is not conclusive,
and they may possibly have been formed when the jadeite
crystallized. They certainly formed after the adjacent
and enclosed jadeite crystallized. The chemical analysis
Shows that the mass is slightly higher in silica than if it
consisted wholly of pyroxene. And a calculation of the
possible mineral constituents based on a knowledge of

the presence of feldspar
probably consisted of

shows that the material

analysed

Pure jadeite molecules

♦ , * 86,15 per cent by weight

Diopside

. 6.17

IV * R SiO* -

. 3,05

Total jadeite

94,37

Albite molecules

4.89

AixortUte 41 ,

,56

Total feldspar ,

5.45

5,45

Total

99,82

JADE AS A MINERAL.

The feldspar would have the composition Ab, An,: that
is, oligociase-albite. The thin section does not show 5 per
cent, of feldspar, but the material analyzed may have done
so, since it is not distributed uniformly through the
jadeite.

No. 3095. A more fibrous modification of the jadeite is
found in 3095, which might almost be mistaken for fibrous
amphibole. But some of the more compact crystals are
seen in cross-section with pyroxenic prismatic cleavage,
and the whole mass is clearly the same kind of mineral,
having the same index of refraction. It appears as
though rather large compact crystals of jadeite had
been changed into groups of nearly parallel prisms of the
same mineral. These are bent in various directions and
grade into fine grains of jadeite. In this case, as in that
of some of the coarse-grained rocks, dynamical action has
changed the form of the pyroxene without altering its
mineralogical character.

No. 13333 is almost pure jadeite. In thin section the
specimen is almost colorless, with a whitish tinge. It is
traversed by numerous irregular cracks, as though the
rock had been subjected to crushing. There are minute
colorless veins crossing the section independent of the
cracks. They are made up of larger crystals of the same
mineral as the mass of the specimen. The whole is an
aggregation of irregularly shaped crystals of jadeite.
They do not exhibit crystallographic outlines, and vary in
size, the majority being very minute. The substance of
the jadeite is colorless and exhibits the usual cleavage and
optical properties. There are scattered through it micro-
scopically small opaque specks, usually with irregular
outline, whose exact character is indeterminable. They
are most probably magnetite. There are also small
crystals of a colorless mineral, with index of refraction
slightly higher than that of the surrounding jadeite, and
having a double refraction about half as great as that of
jadeite. Its outline in cross-section is square and eight-

JADE AS A MINERAL.

sided like that of a pyroxene. In longitudinal section it
is rectangular, as though bounded by prism and basal
plane. It appears to be either a tetragonal or ortho-
rhombic mineral, having the axis of greatest elasticity
parallel to the length of the prism. It is so filled with
inclusions of jadeite that good interference figures were
not obtained, hence its uniaxial or biaxial character could
not be determined. It is therefore not possible to state
its mineral character. The most probable assumption is
that it is andalusite. Its quantity is not large, so that its
presence does not materially affect the character of the
rock, which is an almost pure jadeite.

No. 13242 is an aggregate of small jadeite crystals with
a few larger ones of irregular shape. The mass is streaked
with greenish, dark-colored specks, which appear under
the microscope as opaque particles crowded together in
the larger jadeite crystals as products of alteration. Parts
of the jadeite grains are colored pale-green. In places the
jadeite crystals are grouped in fan-like aggregates of radi-
ating prisms. Cross-sections of these exhibit the char-
acteristic prismatic cleavage. These crudely spherulitic
aggregates occur in bands grading into small-grained
layers. There are rather numerous patches of the color-
less mineral (? albite), and somewhat lenticular crystals
about O.S mm. long, and smaller. They are strongly pleo-
cliroic with amphibole cleavage. Cross-sections show the
orthopinacoid (100) strongly developed, besides the unit
prism faces (110). The colors are dark bluish-green to
pale yellow. Longitudinal sections were not observed.
The colors of this amphibole suggest an impure glauco-
phane.

No. 13193 consists of irregularly shaped crystals of
jadeite scattered through albite, which form interlocking
crystals of variable size; some individuals enclosing a
number of crystals of jadeite. The substance of albite
is very pure and fresh, and exhibits a characteristic cleav-
age and optical properties. Twinning in polysynthetic

JADE AS A MINERAL.

lamella? is developed to only a slight extent. Many
crystals are not twinned. Estimating the specific gravity
of albite at 2.04, and that of jadeite at 3.34, then to obtain
a specific gravity for the rock equal to 2. 8278 would require
27 per cent, jadeite and 73 per cent, albite, and the theo-
retical chemical composition of the whole would be about

SiO, , . . 63.87

AljOs . . . 2(1,82

KitjO . , . 12. 70

ilS.Wi

It would appear as though both minerals crystallized at
one time. Their intimate association is interesting be-
cause of their chemical relation, jadeite being a meta-
silicate of alumina and soda, while albite is a polysilicate
of alumina and soda. They might have formed from a
mass too rich in silicate to form jadeite wholly, and too
poor in silicate for albite to form singly,

No. 3148. This specimen proves very clearly the origin
of the fibrous amphibole or nephrite which constitutes the
remaining thin sections which were studied microscopi-
cally, The same tiling is shown by several other speci-
mens, but this one is perhaps the most conclusive. In
thin section 3148 is a microcrystalline to microcrypto-
crystalline aggregation of colorless fibres and Hakes or
scales, having a confused arrangement, which in places
approaches a more definite grouping, in which the fibres
He in several directions. In each of these directions the
fibres are approximately parallel and slightly curving, so
that streaks or bands of fibres extinguish the light syn-
chronously between crossed uicols. The polarizing colors
of these minute fibres are grays of the first order. They
grade into thicker and more compact crystals with higher
interference colors. These crystals exhibit distinct pris-
matic amphibole cleavage in cross-section, and are some-
times an tom orpine in the prism zone.

Through this mass are scattered fragmentary crystals of
colorless jadeite, like that forming the rocks just de-

JADE AS A MINERAL,

scribed. It is distinguished from the amphibole by its
higher refraction, appearing to rise considerably above the
body of the rock. Its double refraction is also higher.
Its prismatic cleavage is also characteristic. A lamellar
twinning is present, and in places is curved and apparently
the result of strain. Bordering and traversing the large
jadeite crystals in seams is amphibole, sometimes oriented
parallel to the jadeite, sometimes not. The amphibole is
compact in some cases and fibrous in o thers. The transition
is into compact amphibole, which frays out into curved
fibres at the ends. It is evident that the fibrous amphib-
ole composing this rock has been derived from colorless
pyroxene or jadeite, remnants of which still exist in the
rock. Another section of this rock shows the same micro-
structure, but none of the pyroxene remnants. Still
another section of the same rock shows patches of fibres,
most of which extinguish at nearly one time. These
are banded by parallel lines of fibres with a different
orientation. These patches represent the extent of jade-
ite crystals that were twinned in the usual manner, each
crystal having been altered to a mass of amphibole fibres,
most of which are parallel to one another, a part lying at
various angles. The chemical analysis shows no jadeite to
have been present in the material analyzed.

Xo, 13267. The prisms are acicular and fibrous. There
is more of an approach to streaked or parallel fibrous
structure, though the needles cross one another at various
angles. This structure is shown in photomicrographs
numbered 13267 in Plates B and C. The amphibole has a
pale-green color in thin section, the crystals being pleo-
chroic, — yellowish-green parallel to the prism axis and
bluish-green at nearly right angles. It is a mixture of
jadeite and amphibole in the proportion of three to two,
and consists of very minute fibres with a preponderat-
ing parallel arrangement, producing a more or less pro-
nounced fibration or lamination in the rock. The chemi-
cal analysis shows that the specimen is a mixture of
jadeite and amphibole rich in soda and magnesia.

JADE AS A MINERAL.

No. 13205. A very good example of this alteration is
shown in a thin section from 13205, which has been pho-
tographed (Plate A). In the illustration the colorless
jadeite appears dark, and the delicate twin striations are
clearly seen. The jadeite in this rock is highly striated.

No. 13275. A precisely similar ease is found in rock
13275, which is a mass of microscopic to sub microscopic
fibres of amphibole, with occasional larger compact
crystals. Scattered through the mass are small fragments
of colorless jadeite, as in the previous case. The altera-
tion has gone farther, and only a little jadeite remains.

No. 3131. Another example of amphibole alteration is
found in one thin section, 3131. It is a confused aggre-
gate of amphibole fibres, which, on account of the thick-
ness of the rock sections, exhibit rather high interference
colors. The index of refraction, however, is that of
amphibole. There is a curved parting to the mass, and
the appearance of rounded aggregates of colorless material
in a gray matrix. This suggests the grain of the original
pyroxene rock. A few fragments of colorless jadeite
remain, as in 13275. There are a few curved and distorted
microscopic crystals of colorless mica or muscovite. The
other section of 3131 might be described as a jadeite con-
sisting almost wholly of jadeite, with few individuals of
the colorless indeterminable mineral. The two thin sec-
tions are quite different from one another.

No. 13214 presents the same conditions as the foregoing.
A few fragments of jadeite remain; the mass of the rock
consisting of amphibole fibres, that in places reach the
size of compact crystals.

No. 13266 is the same, with a small amount of colorless
jadeite in fan-shaped aggregates. These are shown in the
photomicrograph (Plate A), the lighter gray portions being
amphibole fibres.

No. 13200 consists of minutely fibrous amphibole, and

JADE AS A MINERAL.

considerable compact amphibole in irregularly shaped
crystals, in clusters and streaks through the rock. This
is shown in the photomicrograph (Plate C). There are also
remnants of small jadeite crystals in aggregations and
streaks, and sometimes in spherulitic clusters, as in 18206.
The irregular and jagged outline of the pyroxene grains
is exactly the same in both these thin sections.

N o. 3010 presents an instance in which the relation be-
tween the colorless pyroxene or jadeite and equally color-
less amphibole is not so evident. The rock consists of
microscopic prisms and shorter crystals of pyroxene in an
irregular aggregation, together with larger crystals of
compact amphibole. The outline of the amphibole is
determined by the adjacent pyroxene crystals. The two
are distinguished by their optical characteristics and pris-
matic cleavage. The prisms of pyroxene are bounded in
the prism zone by the faces of the unit prism, yielding
nearly square cross-sections. The prisms penetrate the
larger crystals of amphibole, and lie enclosed in them in
all directions. In some cases the acicular prisms of
pyroxene are located on both sides of a fracture line in
the amphibole, or along the boundary between two amphib-
ole crystals. The two minerals appear to be nearly con-
temporaneous crystallizations; the pyroxene being some-
what the earlier. The amphibole is not fibrous and
does not seem to have resulted from the alteration of
pyroxene. It is, however, quite the same in appearance
as the compact amphibole, which is secondary. Its exact
origin in this case is doubtful. The structure is very well
shown in the photomicrograph (Plate B), The nearly
square cross-section of pyroxene, the prismatic sections,
and acicular crystals of the same mineral can be seen in
the broader areas of the compact amphibole. In places
there is a green color which occurs both in the jadeite arid
the amphibole. They are slightly pleochroic, as in other
cases already noted;

Ts T o. 3136. The micros truct are of 8186 is clearly the

JADE AS A MINERAL.

result ol amphibolic alteration of jadeite. The rock con-
sists of microcrystal line to microcryptocrystalline aggre-
gation of fibres of colorless amphibole that extinguish
light between crossed nicols in irregular patches, some of
which are banded in parallel lines, These patches corre-
spond to the originally twinned pyroxene. In places the
amphibole is in compact crystals. There is a curved fibra-
tion iu one direction through the rock, along which it has
cracked. A few small clouded spots appear to be impure
muscovite. The rock is a nephrite. •

No. 3246. This is also the mie restructure of 3246, except
that the patches are larger, showing that the original rock
was a coarser-grained jadeite rock. There is also a
mottling similar in size to that noticed in the large
crystals of jadeite, where it was the result of strain (com-
pare with jadeite No. 3248). This and all of the succeeding
specimens are nephrite.

No. 132G2R has exactly the same microstructure and
composition as No. 3240.

No. 13008. The same is true of No. 1300S. The once
coarse-grained aggregate of pyroxene crystals is perfectly
mapped out by the patches of similarly oriented amphib-
ole fibres arranged in a direction corresponding to the
twinned positions of the pyroxene lamellae.

No. 1326S. The same structure is shown on a larger scale
in 13268. There are similar mottled patches. But the
mottling is so coarse that the details of its structure can
be seen. It consists of fan- like bundles of fibres crossing
one another in two or more directions, sometimes produc-
ing spherulitic aggregates, with four long arms. In other
places the fibres are arranged in lines of lenticular or
spindle-shaped bundles, which produce curving lines.
Between the latter are fibres in other orientations, prob-
ably bundles seen in cross-section. This appears to be the
same structure that produces the mottling in the finer-

JADE AS A MINE UAL.

grained forms, but it is not so easily analyzed in those
oases, because of the difficulty of getting thin enough
sections.

No, 13131 is the same as 13008 in all respects. In one
place there is a banding of the fibres as though there had
been a dragging of the material in that direction.

No. 1321 L The long streaks of parallel fibi^es are more
marked in 13211, which is otherwise like the previous
sections. Its microstmcture is shown in photomicrograph
(Plate C).

No. 3156, A transition from the patchy structure shown
by the last few sections into a uniform aggregation of
minute fibres is seen in 3156, The two structures are parts
of the same rock. In the finer-grained portion are groups
of compact amphiboles yielding fan-shaped sections.

No. 13203 belongs to this class of rocks, and is nearly
identical with those just described, except that there are
areas of fibres that are almost wholly parallel, so that they
approach closely to compact amphibole. This structure is
shown in the photomicrograph (Plate C),

Nos. 13371, 13374. These are nephrite with an intense
emerald-green mineral in irregular patches and spots.
The sections differ somewhat in texture. No, 13371 con-
sists of bladed, prismatic, and irregularly shaped ante-
drons, in places with parallel arrangement. Some crystals
are colorless, others pale green, others intense brilliant
green. In size they vary from anliedrons about 1 mm.
in diameter to microscopically minute particles. The
more strongly colored crystals have higher refraction and
in places exhibit aggregate polarization. The colors of
the different crystals vary in shade, but are of like tone,
with marked pleochroism from emerald-green to greenish -
yellow and yellow. The paler crystals are undoubtedly
amphibole, as is shown by the prismatic cleavage. But the

JADE AS A MINERAL.

strongly colored mineral differs somewhat optically from
most amphiboles: however, it is referred to amphibole
provisionally, and may be a variety not yet described.
No. 13374 contains more colorless amphibole.

The remaining thin sections of nephrite exhibit many
instances of exactly similar raicrostructure and of identi-
cal mineral composition. They may be described in groups,
which differ from one another only in slight modifications
in the arrangement of the amphibole fibres. In all of
them there is little or no trace of the original granular
pyroxene rock. But all the structures have been observed
in direct connection with others that exhibit the evidence
of their origin, or that still contain fragments of pyroxene.-
So that it is reasonable to assume that all of the nephrite
studied in this collection has been formed by the amphi-
bolical alteration of colorless pyroxene or jadeite.

In the following thin sections — Nos. 3119, 13207, 13251,
13007C, 13007G, 13088, 13005, 13122, 13262B— there is
sometimes a faint suggestion of the patches derived from
previous pyroxene, but the amphibole fibres are in a con-
fused aggregation, with occasionally longer streaks of
nearly parallel fibres. In the case of 13251 there is a
yellowish stain in part of the section, which seems to be
occasioned by hydrous oxide of iron. A brown mineral in
another part of the same section is in thin plates, not
definitely bounded by crystallographic planes. Its exact
nature is uncertain, but it suggests brown mica.

Nos. 13007C and 13007G, although differing in color in
the specimens, are closely alike in thin section. The
texture in the large green slab (13007G) varies from place
to place, which may be seen on the back of the specimen;
hence thin sections will vary according to the place from
which they were cut. Some oE it is extremely fine-grained;
in places it is in patches of coarser grain. The two speci-
mens consist of the same mineral and have almost identical
specific gravity. Under the microscope the thin sections

JADE AS A MINERAL.

are also alike iu being made up of minute scales and fibres
of nephrite through which are scattered, in 13007C4, patches
consisting of parallel fibres, sometimes curved, of the same
mineral, nephrite; while in 13007C there are occasional
patches consisting of compact nephrite, not fibrous. The
difference is slight and would not show in the specimen.

No. 13192H is one of this kind with rather more parallel-
ism to the fibres in places, and with traces of the original
pyroxenic grains in the arrangement of the fibres. Pris-
matic crystals of amphibole are more abundant. They lie
in several directions. Sometimes a number close to one
another will have parallel orientations which are shown by
the exact parallelism of a group of cross-sections of am-
phibole prisms.

No. 13026 is similar to the one last mentioned.

The following thin sections — Nos. 3125, 3245, 13095,
13246, 13211, 13216 — are alike in having a microstructnre
caused by a nearly uniform mixture of amphibole fibres,
which are in fan-shaped divergent clusters, sometimes
approaching a sphemlitic arrangement. 13095 carries a
few microscopic ilakes of colorless mica.

No. 13212. In 13212 some of the bundles of fibres are
longer and larger, and needles of compact amphibole are
sparingly present. Three photomicrographs, Nos. 13212 a,
5, and c on Plate B, were made from thin sections of this
specimen. The bundles of fibres have several orientations,
which can be seen in the illustrations.

No. 13210. In 13210 the compact prisms of amphibole
are much more numerous, and give the rock a more dis-
tinctly marked microstructure, which is well shown in
photomicrograph (Plate B). The prisms grade into fibres,
are in nearly parallel groups, and cross one another in
several directions.

The following thin sections are nephrites consisting of

JADE AS A MINERAL,

very minute fibres with a preponderating parallel arrange-
ment, producing more or less fibration or lamination in
the rock :

Nos. 13250, 133SG, and 13381, In these sections the
delicate fibres are curved in several directions or extin-
guish light in irregular patches. There is a ye] lo wish-
brown tabular mineral, with six sides to some crystals.
The same substance also occurs in minute particles. It
appears to be a hydrous oxide of iron.

No. 13217 is one of this class of rocks, with somewhat
larger fibres. There are numerous crooked cracks parallel
to the direction of fibration.

No. 13086 consists of very minute fibres and particles,
with banded structure shown in photomicrograph (Plate
0) ; some bands being clouded, others transparent.
There are small opaque spots that are light green by
incident light, and irregularly shaped crystals of a red-
dish-brown isotropic mineral, which is surrounded by a
white opaque substance resembling leucoxene. It is prob-
ably perovskite.

No. 13334. This specimen is nephrite in an aggregation
of extremely fine fibres that lie parallel to one another
and have been bent into contorted and crenulated bands.
There is some clouding of the material which is white by
incident light and yellowish by transmitted light. In
places the fibres are less crinkled and the substance is
nearly transparent, and the double refraction is more
uniform as shown by the interference colors, but there is
some mottling. Throughout much of the section there is
aggregate polarization indicating very minute confused
fibres. The thin section cut across the fibres exhibits less
crinkling and a less fibrous texture and indicates that the
fibres are flattened or bladed. The nephrite is very free

JADE AS A MINERAL.

from inclusions of other minerals, and as shown by the
chemical analysis is very pure nephrite, having the com-
position of tremolite with less than four per cent, of
ferrous oxide.

Nos. 13006, 13030, 13118, 13128, 13218, 13233, 13248.
All these specimens have the fibres in parallel, and some-
times in curved arrangement, with a parallel or laminated
structure strongly marked and accompanied by crooked
cracks in most cases. The rock appears to have been
crushed or dragged, and tlie structure indicates a high
degree of dynamic metamorphism.

No. 13335 is nephrite, consisting of confused fibres of
ainphibole, extremely minute, in some places crinkled and
contorted, in other places in streaks of parallel fibres. It
is traversed by short crooked cracks containing dark
coloring matter. The nephrite is stained yellow with
streaks of brown. The fibres are so minute that they
overlie one another in the thin section and produce aggre-
gate polarizations between crossed nicols.

No. 13223. The most extreme case of this kind is found
in 13223; the fibres are almost perfectly parallel, with
striations that seem to lie due to twinning parallel to the
orthopinacoid. The structure resembles that of silicified
wood in longitudinal section, and is shown in photomicro-
graph (Plate C).

Three specimens remain to be described which differ
slightly from those already treated, but which are nephrite
or jadeite with other minerals in variable quantities:

No. 13249 is a jadeite, composed of very small, irregu-
larly shaped crystals or grains of colorless jadeite and
pale-green amphibole. These have a crudely parallel
orientation, producing a lamination or fibration of the
mass, which is further emphasized by streaks of minute
grains of an almost colorless mineral with high index of

(

58 JADE AS A MINE11AL.

refraction and high double refraction. Some crystals of
it are well developed and sharply defined, and appear in
quadratic or tetragonal pyramids, with very short prisms
in some cases. These 'characteristics are those of zircon,
but its determination is questionable. There is also a
little iron-oxide, probably magnetite, in irregularly
shaped grains associated with the (1) zircon. The green
color of the amphibole is quite pronounced in some
crystals, and in one instance is strong blue-green. The
chemical analysis shows that the specimen consists of
jadeite with sixteen per cent, of nephrite.

No. 13005 is a rock of quite different composition,
although consisting mainly of amphibole. The amphibole
is in minute, irregularly shaped crystals, and some larger
ones that exhibit distinct green color, with pleocliroism
from yellowish to bluish-green. In places the green am-
phibole occurs in distinct prismatic crystals, with the prism
faces and cleavage well developed. Between these minute
crystals Is a colorless mineral, with lower refraction and
low double refraction, of very pure substance suggesting
quartz. It is wholly alio triomorp hie, or interstitial, act-
ing as a cement for the other minerals. Though in very
small areas, it is very widely scattered through the rock,
and is present in considerable amount for an accessory
mineral. Scattered through the rock in much greater
quantity are small particles of an almost colorless mineral
whose form and optical properties correspond to those of
kliuo-zoisite. It constitutes about forty per cent, of the
rock. With it is associated a small amount of epidote,
distinguished by its yellow color in thin sections. There
are small, irregularly shaped grains of highly refracting
yellowish mineral, possibly titanite, with attached grains
of magnetite. There are a few small crystals of colorless
garnet.

No 13241 is a line-grained aggregate of colorless to pale-
green jadeite crystals with a curving parallel arrangement
of the more or less prismatic crystals. There are abnn-

JADE AS A MINERAL.

danfc colorless garnets about 0.15 to 0.30 mm. in diameter,
without distinct crystal outline. There is a subordinate
amount of colorless mica-like mineral with the optical
properties of pennine clinochlore. There are also numer-
ous minute grains of a yellow mineral with high refrac-
tion, which is probably sphene* The structure of this
rock is shown in the photomicrograph (Plate A), taken
between crossed nicols* Consequently the garnets appear
as black spots.

Since the above was written a number of thin sections
of European material have been examined. Of eight thin
sections representing nephrite from Jordansnuihl, Silesia
(Nos. 13471 to 13478 inclusive), three (Nos. 13471, 13472,
and 13474) are almost identical. They consist of nephrite
in fibres, flakes, and bladed crystals irregularly aggregated
with larger crystals; in some cases broad and grading
into the fibrous forms; in others, long acicular prisms.
All are the same kind of amphibole. Cross-sections of
prisms show the characteristic amphibole cleavage, and
prismatic faces modified by orthopinacoid and less pro-
nounced cl hi op mucoid. There is a small amount of an
opaque, black mineral probably magnetite, also minute,
microscopic, brown particles included in the larger am-
phiboles. No. 13475 is the same as those just described,
but with much smaller scales and fibres and little com-
pact amphibole. No. 13475 is more fibrous, and No. 13477
is very fine-grained with schistose arrangement of the
crystals.

Two other sections of nephrite from Jordansmiihl differ
somewhat from the preceding. No. 13476 is a microscopi-
cally fine-grained aggregate of amphibole anhedrons about
.02 mm. in diameter. There is, besides, a brownish-black
mineral partly surrounded by a yellowish, highly refract-
ing granular aggregate with very weak double refraction,
which is also scattered through the nephrite. Its char-
acter has not been determined. No. 13478 is a mixture of
fibrous and compact crystals of amphibole— nephrite—

JADE AS A MINERAL.

with irregular anhedrons of a colorless mineral having the
optical properties of zoisite.

The three sections of nephrite from Reichenstein (Nos.
13479, 13480, 13481) are of very simple character. No.
13479 consists of a fine-grained aggregation of minute
anhedrons of amphibole with scattered microscopic grains
of arsenopyrite. No. 13481 is composed of more fibrous
amphibole with schistose structure and contains consider-
able arsenopyrite in lenticular masses. No. 13480 is an
extremely fine fibrous and scaly aggregate of amphibole.

No. 13482, the Schwemsal. nephrite, consists of minute
flakes and fibres of amphibole in spherulitic bundles and
patches.

TENACITY.

The great tenacity of jade has long been known as per-
haps its most characteristic property. Lapidaries who are
familiar with the jade group of minerals, state that it
requires several fold more time to cut or carve a piece of
jadeite or nephrite than it does to cut or carve a similar
object from rock-crystal or agate, both harder than the
nephrite form of jade ; and its resistance to blows and
pressure has frequently been proved by direct experiment.
It is said that a stone battle-axe brought back by Colum-
bus, when tried by Peter Martyr on a piece of iron, cut into
the metal without injuring the stone.* It is not definitely
stated that the axe was of jade, but the results fit in well
with the later and better authenticated experiments.

In 1860 Krantz, the mineral dealer of Bonn, having
attempted unsuccessfully to break a large block with a
sledge-hammer, sent it to the Krupp Grim Works at Essen,
where it was placed under a steam-hammer to he broken.
The anvil on which it was placed was ruined, while the
mass of nephrite remained unhurt. Later, the block was
broken into many fragments by heating it to redness and
then throwing it into water.

*B;tsLian> Culturlander des alien Amerika, 1878, I* 792, quoted in Meyer's
Jadeit mid Kephrit Object e, II. 2,

JADE AS A MINERAL.

A more scientific experiment was that made by von
Schlagiutweit, the great Asiatic explorer, who has made ns
so familiar with jade and its occurrences in Chinese Turkis-
tan. He selected a fine light-colored specimen of the best
quality o f nephrite, 70 cubic centimetres in volume, with
two fiat fracture faces. This was placed on an anvil within
an upright tube, and on the exposed face of the specimen
was placed a steel chisel edge down, the blade measuring
2.5 cm. by 0.1 mm. thick. A cylindrical mass of iron
weighing 50 kilos, was then allowed to fall upon tile upper
end of the chisel, through a distance of 35 cm. Under this
test the tenacity of the mineral was found to be so great
that the edge of the chisel was turned, and a metallic mark
resembling a wide lead-pencil mark was left on the surface
of the nephrite, which was uninjured except that on the
under side of the specimen where it had rested on the
anvil three small initial protuberances had been somewhat
bruised by the blow, as indicated by three white spots.

In 1898 Professor Jaczewsky, who had discovered great
beds of nephrite in Siberia (described by him in a later sec-
tion of this work), made some preliminary tests which he
kindly communicated to us. Two cubes of different kinds
of Siberian nephrite were cut and submitted to a crushing
test in the big Werder machine in the laboratory of the
School of Bridges and Highways of Emperor Alexander I.,
at St. Petersburg, under the supervision of Mr. B. Vas-
senko. The results are here given :

No. 1. Specific gravity, 3.003, green nephrite, somewhat
transparent at the edges, and showing traces of
figuration on its polished surface, was crushed
under a pressure of 4222 kg, to the square centi-
meter — 60,050 lbs. per square inch.

No. 2. A perfectly black nephrite without fissures,
specific gravity 2.993, failed under a pressure of
7759 kilos, to the square centimeter = 110,000
lbs, per square inch.

Both broke with a sharp report.

In order to obtain the most scientific results in regard to

JADE AS A MINERAL,

tlie strength of both minerals, Mr. Bishop arranged for
three series of resistance tests that should be as far as
possible both exhaustive and authoritative. These were :

Resistance to impact,

Resistance to compression, and
Resistance to tension.

The Impact experiments were conducted at the Engi-
neering Laboratory of Harvard University, by Mr. Logan
Waller Page, Geologist to the Highway Commissioners of
the Commonwealth of Massachusetts, and were made on
half-inch cubes of carefully selected typical material from
three different localities :

(1) No. 13336. Jadeite from Burma ; specific gravity,

3.3122 ; hardness, 7 ; color, greenish blue-white,
with occasional green spots ; remarkably homo-
geneous and compact.

(2) No. 13268. Nephrite boulder from China (probably

of Turkistan origin) ; specific gravity, 2.9690 ;
hardness, 6.5 ; color, greenish-gray, apparently
very compact, with a few spots of what seemed
to be manganous oxide.

(3) No. 13030. Nephrite boulder from the West Island,

New Zealand ; specific gravity, 3.1022; hardness,
6.5 ; color, rich dark green.

His report is as follows :

IMPACT TESTS ON JADE.

BY LOGAN WALLER PAGE.

In finding out the possible range of the application and
usefulness of any material in the arts, among the qualities
most important to be determined is its power of resisting

JADE AS A MINERAL, 63

blows, or impact. The momentary stresses set up as a
result of a blow will vary with the precise form of the
stressed body and with the method of application of the
blow. If the body is a light prism or cylinder, and is sup-
ported at the bottom, and the effect of the blow is distrib-
uted evenly over the whole upper surface, the stresses set
up will be purely compressive, of course, with the excep-
tion of the accompanying shearing stresses along planes
inclined to the ends. If such a body is supported on top,
and the blow coming above is resisted by a yoke attached
to the lower end of the body, the stresses set up will be
chiefly tensile. If the body be in the form of a beam, and
the blow applied anywhere between the two supports, there
will be compressive, tensile, and shearing stresses. It is,
therefore, necessary, in testing the resistance to impact
offered by a body, to specify exactly the conditions under
which the test is conducted.

The standard impact test adopted in the engineering
laboratory of Harvard University subjects the material to
be tested to blows from a falling hammer, through an inter-
vening plunger. The power of resisting such treatment,
that is, of sustaining it without fracture, is the evidence
of a property which may be called £i toughness * 53 This
term is not altogether satisfactory, for since there are two
ways in which a body subjected to impact may resist frac-
ture, there are two ways in which it may be interpreted*
It may be a malleable material capable of considerable
plastic or permanent deformation (as, for example, lead or
copper), in which case the energy of the blow is used up in
permanently deforming it* Or it may be a substance which
permits a large elastic deformation, and has a high elastic
limit ; in which case considerable energy will be required
to stress the material to that elastic limit* A material of
this latter class, which is also capable of but slight or no
permanent deformation, is commonly called a brittle
material*

Jade appears to belong to the class of brittle substances
which permit of no plastic deformation, and which conse-
quently fracture when stressed to the elastic limit. For

JADE AS A MINERAL.

such a material an expression for tlie resistance to impact
can be readily found.

Let E be the cuergy of the blow causing fracture,

E the modulus of elasticity of the material,

P the stress at the elastic limit, which is also the maximum
compressive stress,
d the strain at the elastic limit,

K some cons taut,

Then I? = EPd,

But E = ?

Therefore It = —

that Is to say, —the power of resisting impact is propor-
tional to the square of the ultimate compressive stress, and
inversely* as the modulus of elasticity of the material
This assumes that the blow is evenly distributed over the
top surface of the test specimen. In actual practice, how-
ever, it is not possible to bring about this ideal condition,
and the blow will be received and its effect concentrated on
a few high points on the receiving surface, with the result
that the material will be unequally stressed in Its different
parts, and will break down locally at the high points. As
this would give conditions that could not be repeated at
will, it is considered undesirable to attempt to get uniform
distribution of the stress, and an intentional concentration
at the center of the upper surface has been substituted. To
effect this concentration a plunger is used, the lower and
bearing surface of which is spherical Tile stresses set up
in the material as the result of a blow delivered through
such a plunger are undoubtedly more complex than would
be tlie case with a flat-end hammer or plunger, but as the
object of the test is not to obtain any physical constants,
but to find comparative powers of resisting impact, that
consideration is of small account compared with the advan-
tage obtained in uniformity of conditions during the stand-
ard test*

The tests were carried on at the engineering laboratory
of Harvard University. The machine used consists of a

JADE AS A MINERAL.

one-kilogramme liahimer, which is guided by two vertical
rods. The hammer is raised by a screw, and can be
dropped automatically from any desired height. It falls
on a plunger which rests on the test-cube. The lower and
bearing surface of the plunger is spherical in shape,
having a radius of 1 cm. The test-cube is adjusted so that
tiie centre of its upper surface is tangent to the spherical
end of tiie plunger, and the plunger is pressed firmly upon
the cube by two spiral springs which are held by the
guide rods. The plunger is made of a very hard steel,
and its spherical end is tempered in the same manner as
the tip of an armor- piercing projectile, and it is bolted to
a crosshead which is free to slide on the two vertical rods.
The bottom of the test-cnbe is held by a device which pre-
vents it moving when a blow is struck by the hammer. A
small lever carrying a brass pencil at its free end is con-
nected to the side of the crosshead by a link motion,
arranged so that it gives a vertical movement to the pencil
six times as great as the movement of the crosshead. The
pencil presses against the drum, and its movement is
recorded on a strip of silicated paper fastened thereon.
The drum is turned automatically through a small angle
at each stroke of the hammer. In this way a record is
obtained of the movement of the plunger at each blow of
the hammer.

In the present tests seven half-inch cubes of jade were
employed, four from Burma, two from China, and one
from New Zealand. The method adopted for testing
these cubes consisted of a 1 cm. fall of the hammer for
the first blow, and an increased fall of 1 cm. for each suc-
ceeding blow until the cube was destroyed. The automatic
record obtained on the drum shows the behaviour of the
test-cube at each blow of the hammer. When the hammer
strikes the plunger, if the blow is within the elastic limit
of the test-cube beneath it, 'the plunger recovers; if not, the
plunger stays at the point to which it is driven and which
is recorded on the drum. The number of blows required
to destroy a test-cube is generally used as a measure of its

JADE AS A MINERAL.

power of resisting impact, but the energy in centimetre-
grammes of the destroying blow, or the total energy
expended, does equally well.

Before testing the jade several trial tests were made to
ascertain if the machine was in thorough working order.
The material selected for this purpose was a highly meta-
morphic siliceous slate, which was exceedingly hard.
This particular stone was selected at the advice of an
eminent petrographical authority, who expressed the
opinion that it would stand a higher impact test than
jade, an opinion in which the writer fully concurred. The
four specimens tested stood on the average 16 blows, or
a breaking blow of 16,000 centimetre-grammes of energy;
the total amount of energy expended oil each specimen
was 136,000 centimetre-grammes.

The four cubes of Burmese jadeite (labelled 13336) were
tested first, then the two cubes of nephrite from a boulder
from China (labelled 13268), and finally the one of ,
nephrite from New Zealand (labelled 13030). The tests
are numbered in the order in which they were made.

TESTS ON BURMESE JADEITE (NO. 13336),

Test No. 1.— The load was applied at right angles to the
striation and cleavage cracks of the cube, which though
very apparent were not so numerous as in some of the
other specimens. There were also a few flaws visible,
though probably of insufficient size to weaken the speci-
men to any degree. The average height of the specimen
from five measurements between the load surfaces was
.506 of an inch. Just 100 blows were required to break
this cube, or a final blow of 106-000 centimetre-grammes;
the total energy expended was 5,050,000 centimetre-
grammes.

Test No. 2. — The cube was broken with the load parallel
to the striation and cleavage cracks, the latter of which
were almost invisible. The average height of the cube
was .5004 of an inch. It stood 103 blows, or a final blow

AP.

JADE AS A MINERAL, 67

of 103,000 centime tre-grammes; the total energy expended
was 5,356,000 centimetre-grammes.

Test No. 3.— The cube used in this test was very much
striated, and contained several cracks of considerable size
parallel to the striation. The load was applied parallel to
the striation and cleavage cracks. The average height of
the cube was .584 of an inch. It stood 112 blows, or a
final blow of 112,000 centimetre-grammes; the total enery
expended was 6,828,000 centimetre-grammes.

Test No. 4. — The striation in this cube was very slight,
and there was almost an absence of cleavage cracks. The
load was applied at right angles to the striation. The
average height of the cube was .503 of an inch. It stood
131 blows, bra final blow of 131,000 centimetre-grammes;,
the total energy expended was 8,646,000 centimetre-
grammes.

TESTS ON CHINESE NEPHRITE (NO, 13268).

Test No. 5.— The cube used in this test had very little
striation, but cleavage cracks were apparent. The load
was applied at right angles to the cleavage cracks.
The average height of the cube was .510 of an inch. It
stood 81 blows, or a linal blow of 81,000 centime tre-
grammes; the total energy expended was 3,321,000 centi-
metre-grammes.

Test No . 6. — The load was applied parallel to the cleav-
age cracks in the cube; the striation was also parallel but
very slight. Its average height was ,511 of an inch. It
stood 30 blows, or a final blow of 39,000 centimetre-
grammes; the total energy expended was 780,000 centi-
metre-gram mes.

TEST ON NEW ZEALAND NEPHRITE {NO. 13030).

Test No. 7.— There was no striation in this cube and
only one cleavage crack, to which the load was applied at

JADE AS A MINERAL.

right angles. The average height of the cube was .496 of
an. inch. It stood 85 blows, or a final blow of 85,000 centi-
metre-grammes ; the total energy expended was 3,655,000
ce n ti m e tre-gram mes.

TABLE OF RESULTS.

Locality

Test

num-

ber

Direction of
biosv

Number
blows to
produce
fracture

Energy
of final
blow in
cen.-gra.

Total energy
expended
in producing
fracture
in ceu. grs.

Burma

(Ko, mm)

Right angles to
cleavage

100

100,000

5,050,000

Burma
(No, imm

Parallel to
cleavage

103

103,000

5,356,000

Burma
(No. 13336)

Parallel to
cleavage

112

112,000

6,328,000

Burma
(No. 13330)

Right angles to
cleavage

131

131,000

8,646,000

China
(No. 13208)

Right angles to
cleavage

81,000

3,321,000

China
(No. 13268)

Parallel to
cleavage

39,000

780,000

New Zealand
(No. 13030)

Right angles to
cleavage

85,000

3,655.000

TABLE OF AYEHAGED RESULTS.

Locality

Direction of
blow to cleavage

Num-
1 her
of

cubes
1 used

Number
blows to
produce
fracture

Energy
of final
blow iti
cen.-grs.

Total energy
expended
in producing
fracture
in cen.-grs.

Burma

Parallel

107.5

107, .100

5,842,000

Right angles

115.5

115,500

6,848,000

Cliiua

Parallel

30,000

780 000

Right angles

81,000

3,321,000

New Zealand

Right angles

85,000

3,055,000

JADE AS A MINERAL*

The table of averaged results shows, as was anticipated,
that the strength of the specimen was greater when the
blow was perpendicular to the cleavage planes than when
it was parallel to them* This conclusion, however, is not
completely borne out by the Burma jades, of which one
(No, 4) showed greater strength and the other (No* 1) less
strength than either of the specimens numbered 2 and 3,
tested parallel to the cleavage planes. The number of
tests is insufficient to demonstrate this point with certainty,
and the great difference in the strength of the China jades
(Nos* 5 and 6) may be due to some cause other than the
difference in the direction of the blows.

The most important fact brought out by the tests is the
high resistance offered by jade to impact, the average for
all the tests being 93 blows, whereas from t-lie four speci-
mens of slate tested the average was 16 blows, and from
three specimens of granite 23 blows* The highest resisting
power which has previously been obtained with this
method of testing has been with 2 cm, cubes of diabase, of
which one sustained 68 blows before fracture ; but as this
test was made on a much larger specimen than the standard
used for the jades, the results are not directly comparable*
It is certain, however, with a test-cube of the same size the
diabase would not have shown so high a result.

A comparison of the strength of the different specimens
shows a decided superiority of the Burma jade over the
others ; the number of test pieces, however, is not sufficient
to determine the relative positions of the China and New
Zealand specimens.

The Compression tests were made by Professor Ira
Harvey Woolson of the Department of Mechanical
Engineering at Columbia University, New York,

In addition to inch-cubes of the material already
described as having been used in the impact tests (Nos*
13336, 13268, and 13030), Professor Woolson tested inch-
cubes of two other specimens of jadeite from Burma, and
two of nephrite from China (but probably of Turkistan
origin) ; viz* :

JADE AS A MINERAL.

No. 13102D, Crude jadeite from Burma ; specific gravity,
3.2406 ; hardness, 7 ; color, dark brownish-green on
four sides of the cube, and yellowish-green on the
other two sides.

No. 13215, Jadeite boulder from Burma ; specific
gravity, 3.2176; hardness, 7; color, dead-white
with bluish-green markings ; homogeneous and
compact, showing the included crystals very
clearly.

No. 13214, Fragment of a nephrite boulder from China,
(probably Turkistan) ; specific gravity, 2.9825 ;
hardness, 6.5 ; color, light sage-green ; very com-
pact and homogeneous ; showing scarcely any
stratification. A number of black metallic spots —
probably chromic iron — present.

His report is as follows :

COMPRESSION TESTS ON JADE.

BY IR A HAliVEY WO OLSON.

With the exception of the two preliminary tests made
by Professor Jaczewsky on Siberian jade (already referred
to), no attempts to determine scientifically the compressive
strength of jade have ever been made. The results now to
lie given may therefore be styled unique and of unusual
interest.

The tests were made on an Emery Hydraulic Testing-
Machine, the most accurate testing-machine known, and
in view of the interest attaching to the material were
carried on with the utmost care.

The specimens were all inch-cubes, sawn to shape and
rubbed to a smooth dull finish. So far as possible they
were all tested on bed, that is, the load was applied at.
right angles to the bedding planes ; but in two specimens.
Nos. 13215 and 13336, the Stratification was not suffi-
ciently distinct to make a positive determination. The

■TADE AS A MINERAL*

compression faces were finished with much care and their
contact with the steel compression plates of the testing
machine made as perfect as possible* To insure still more
perfect support and uniform distribution of load, a slieet
of still 1 blotting-paper was inserted between each face and
the steel plate; experience has shown that this material
has no effect except to improve the support* The lower
plate of the machine was fitted with a spherical adjustment
which made it possible to apply the load squarely to i lie
two compression faces of the specimens, even though they
might be slightly but of parallel*

In all cases except No* 13336 bis a oompressometer was
attached to the specimen, on a gauged length of f of an
inch, and the amount of compression measured in hun-
dred-thousandths of an inch for each 1000 lbs. per square
inch increment of load* On one specimen 80 readings
were taken, on three others 75 readings each, while on
one 54 and on another only 40 readings were obtained
because the specimens failed at loads only slight] y above
these points.

Seven cubes in all were tested : Two of these were taken
from the Burmese material No. 13336 of the Collection.
The first of these, which had a flaw in one corner, meas-
ured 1*001" x 1*013* x 1.009* ; area, 1*022 square inches*
The load was applied to the apparent bedding of the
material. When the load had reached 75,000 lbs, per
square inch, the compressometer was removed, and tile
width was found to have increased from 1*013 to 1*014",
and thickness from 1.009 to 1*011 * Tile total compression
in at a pressure of 75,000 lbs* per square inch was .0027
inches — °f 1 per cent. At 94,000 lbs. pressure a
slight crack appeared oil one corner, and the specimen
suddenly failed with a sharp report at 94,450 lbs., break-
ing into numerous small fragments. Ultimate strength
per square inch 92,416 lbs* Time required, 2 hours*

The second cube of No, 13336, which showed two flaws on
one corner, measured 1,004* x 1*021"' x 1.018* ; area 1.039
square inches. As in the previous specimen, the load was
applied at right angles to the apparent bedding* The

.TADE AS A MINERAL.

specimen began to show white mottled spots on the exposed
faces at 65,000 lbs. These gradually increased until crush-
ing began. The first crack was observed when the applied
load had reached 76,400 lbs., and at 79,180 lbs. the specimen
failed suddenly with a sharp report, breaking into fine
pieces, somewhat prismatic. The ultimate strength proved
to be 76,208 lbs. per square inch. Time, If hours. The
compressometer was not used on this specimen.

No. 13268. A cube made from a nephrite boulder from
China ; of a greenish-gray color, and apparently very com-
pact, with a few spots of what seemed to be manganous
oxide. It measured 0.998" x 1.016" x 1.013"; area in
square inches, 1.029. Measured at a load of 75,000 lbs.
per square inch, and just before removing the compres-
someter, the width had increased from 1.016" to 1.018", and
the thickness from 1.013" to 1.015". The total compression
in -J" at a load of 75,000 lbs. per square inch was .0036" =
T V of 1 per cent. At 80,100 lbs. of applied load one corner
flaked slightly, and at 94,500 lbs. the specimen failed
suddenly with a sharp report, being completely pulverized.
The ultimate strength per square inch proved to be
91,S36 lbs. Time of test, 2 hours and 25 minutes.

No. 13030. A cube from a nephrite boulder from the
West Island of New Zealand; cut almost horizontally
across the schistose structure of the material ; color, dark
rich green ; dimensions 0.955" x 0.980" x 0.972"; area in
square inches, 0.952. When a load of 65,000 lbs. per
square inch was reached, cleavage planes which showed in
the original cube became whitish, and were decidedly
white on one side at 75.000 lbs. per square inch. A few
white cracks also were visible at this load, but no spalling
or breaking occurred until failure. Measured at a load of
75,000 lbs. per square inch, just after the removal of the
compressometer, the width was found to have increased
from 0.980" to 0.987", and the thickness from 0.972* to
0.975". The total compression in -J of an inch at 75,000
lbs. load per square inch = .0037 inches, or -,Y<r of 1 per

JADE AS A MINERAL.

cent. Tlie ultimate strength proved to be 92,332 lbs. per
square inch, a pressure at which the specimen failed sud-
denly with a sharp report, the cube being reduced to sand
and fine fragments. Time occupied in the experiment, 2£
hours.

No. 131021). A cube of crude jadeite from Burma, in
parts coarsely granular ; color very light green in a white
magna, showing large, apparently black patches in cloudy
dark green ; dimensions, 0.945" x 0.968" x 0.981"; area,
0.949 square inches. The specimen, which was not very
perfect, and seemed to be filled with cleavage planes or
seams in various directions, failed suddenly with only a
slight report, while the eompressometer was still attached,
at the maximum load of 38,934 lbs. The total compression
in f-" at 40,000 lbs. load per square inch was 0.00075" =
of 1 per cent. (No. 13215, Burmese jadeite, when
measured at the same load gave the same compression.)
Ultimate strength of specimen, 41,000 lbs. per square inch.
Time, 1 hour.

No. 13215. Cube cut from a jadeite boulder from Burma ;
color, dead white, with bluish-green markings ; homo-
geneous and compact; and clearly showing included crys-
tals ; size 0.930" x 0.946" x 0.807"; area in square inches,
0.763. The specimen failed suddenly without report at a
maximum applied load of 41,987 lbs., while the compressom-
eter was still attached to it, so that no lateral deformations
were measured. Compressometer readings were made on
gauged length of f" for each 1000 lbs. up to 55,000 lbs. per
square inch. At 54,000 lbs. per square inch the total com-
pression was 0.0012" — of 1 per cent.; at 40,000 lbs. it
equalled 0.00074", or ^ of 1 per cent. No. 13f 021), measured
at the same load, gave the same compression. At the
crushing point the specimen broke in small fragments —
somewhat prismatic. The ultimate strength was 65,000
lbs. per square inch. Time, 1 hour and 10 minutes.

No. 13214. Cube cut from a boulder from China (1 Turlds-

JADE AS A MINERAL.

tan). The material was compact and homogeneous, and
showed scarcely any stratification. A number of black
metallic spots, probably chromic iron, present ; color, light
sage-green; dimensions 0.956" x 0.957" x 1.006"; area in
square inches, 0.962, At 87,300 lbs. per square inch white
spots began to appear beneath the surface of the specimen :
while at 89,500 lbs. per square inch it had as a whole a
mottled or cloudy appearance. With a maximum load of
91,600 lbs. it was suddenly shattered to fine bits, with a
sharp report. Much sand produced. Ultimate strength
95,150 lbs. per square inch. Time, 2 hours. The coni-
pressometer was used and measurements taken on a gauged
length of !’ for each 1000 lbs. of load up to 80,000 lbs. per
square inch. At 75,000 lbs. the total compression per
square inch = .00206" = T Vo of 1 per cent. At 80,000 lbs.
it was .00228", or of 1 per cent.

SUMMARY OP COMPRESSION TESTS.

No.

Material

Maximum
load
in lbs.

Ultimate

strength

per

sq. inch

Total
compres-
sion at
75,000 lbs.

Percent-
age of
compres-
sion

Remarks

13336

Jadeite

94,450

92,416

Inches

.0027

tViT of

13336

I i

79,180

76,208

^Compression

not

measured

13268

( Nephrite

94,500

91,836

.0030

A of n

13030

37,800

92,332

.0087

tVif

13102D

Jadeite

38 T 934

41,000

*000 75f

f Compression
measured at
40,000 lbs*

13215 1

A i

41,987

55 T 000

.0012|

tV* "

{Compression
measured at
-54.000 lbs.

13214

Nephrite

91,600

95,150

.00200

m u

.00228^

R 1 1

Iff

'Compression
measured at
80,000 lbs.

JADE AS A MINERAL.

Fiom this it is seen that the crashing point of the speci-
mens tested ranges from 41,000 lbs., jadeite, to 95,000 lbs.,
nephrite, per square inch, and it is probable that these
figures may be accepted as typical. When compared with
the values given in the following table for building-stone,
steel, and cast iron, the average of many tests in all parts
of the world, the greater tenacity of jade becomes very
apparent.

Bands tone,

- 5,000 to 15 t GOO lbs. per square itic

Limestone, .

7,000 •

1 20,000 li 11

Granite,

. 15,000 ‘

[ 35,000 14 "

Mild Steel, .

40,000 •

1 60,000 "

Medium. Steel,

00,000 ■

' 80,000 "

Cast Iron,

60,000 <

- 80,000 " **

JADE, . . . 41,000 “ 95,000 “ “

It is true that special hard grades of steel and cast iron
will stand much more than is indicated above, but it is
scarcely fair to compare the strength of a mineral with the
strength of iron metals.

A few isolated cases are on record where samples of very
fine-grained granite, bluestone, or vitrified sandstone have
withstood 40,mm to 44,000 lbs. per square inch, but these
are rare exceptions. So far as known these tests prove this
material to be by far the strongest of all the mineral king-
dom, and that it possesses rare physical characteristics
independent of its beauty and ornamental features.

The accompanying Tables show the physical properties
determined by measurements of the deformations produced
by successive loads of 1000 lbs. per square inch.

T~Y

76 JADE AS A MINEliAL.

No. 13336.

Burmese Jadeite.

Area, 1.1042 sq. in.

LOADS AND CORRESPONDING DE FORMATION S .

Applied loads
in lbs. per
sq. inch.

Comp resso-
meter read*
mgs ill inches.

Change of length in inches.

Modulus of
elasticity.

Actual.

Difference,

500

.01840

700

.01844

.00004

1000

,01850

,00010

,00006

2000

*01850

,00030

14,900.000?

3000

.01860

.00020

.00010

11,200,000

4000

.01806

.00026

.00004

11,500,000

5000

.01866

.00026

14,400,000

6000

,01871

.00031

.00005

14,500,000

7000

.01871

.00031

16.900.000

8000

.01871

,00031

19,300.000

9000

.01877

.00037

,00006

18,200,000.

10000

.01877

,00037

20,200,000

11000

,01877

.00037

22.200,000

12000

.01877

.00037

24,300.000

13000

.01S77

',0003,7

26,400,000

14000

■01S83

.000-13

,00006

24,400,000

15000

•018SS

.00(1 -iS

.00005

23,400,000

16000

.01SSS

■01

25,000,000

17000

.01394

,OOO.S4

.00006

23,600,000

isooo

.01894

.00034

25,000,000

19000

,01899

.00059

,00005

24,100,000

20000

,01899

.00059

25,400,000

21000

.01906

.00066

,00007

23,900,000

22000

.01906

.00060

25,000,000

23000

,01910

.00070

.00004

24,600.000

24000

.01910

.00070

25,700,000

25000

.01915

.00075

.00005

25,000,000

26000

,01920

.00080

,00005

24,400,000

27000

.01920

.00080

25,300.000

28000

.01925

.00085

,00005

24,700,000

29000

,01925

.00085

25,600.000

30000

.05925

.00085

26,500,000

31000

.01930

.00090

,00005

25,800,000

32000

.01930

,00090

26,600.000

JADE AS A MINERAL,

No, 13336, Continued.

LOADS A AD CORRESPONDING DEFORMATIONS.

Applied loads
in lbs* per
sq. inch.

C o m p resso-
meter read-
ing's in inches.

Change of length In inches.

Modulus of
elasticity.

Actual.

Difference.

33000

*01930

.00090

27,500,000

34000

*01930

,00090

28,400,000

35000

*01930

*00090

29,200,000

36000

,01935

.00095

*00005

28,400,000

3 TOGO

.01935

*00095

29,200,000

38000

.01935

.00095

30,000,000

39000

*01940

*00100

.00005

29,200,000

40000

.01940

*00100

30,000,000

41000

*01940

,00100

30,700,000

42000

.01945

*00105

.00005

30,000,000

43000

*01945

*00105

30,700,000

44000

*01950

*00110

*00005

30*000,000

45000

*01956

.00116

.00006

29,100,000

46000

.01961

,00121

.00005

28,500,000

47000

.01967

*00127

.00006

27,800*000

4S000

.01972

*00132

.00005

28*000,000

49000

,01972

.00132

28,600*000

50000

,01978

*00138

.00006

27*200*000

51000

.01978

.00138

27*700*000

52000

.01973

.00138

28*200,000

53000

,01933

.00143

,00005

27*800,000

54000

.019S9

,00149

,00006

27,200*000

55000

*01989

*00149

27,700*000

50000

.01994

*00154

*00005

27*300*000

57000

*01994

*00154

27*700,000

58000

*02000

.00160

,00006

27,200*000

50000

.02005

.00165

.00005

26*800,000

60000

*02010

*00170

*00005

20*400*000

61000

*02010

*00170

26.900,000

62000

*02016

*00176

.00006

26,400,000

63000

*02016

.00176

26,800,000

64000

,02022

,00182

.00006

26,300,000

65000

*02027

*00187

.00005

26,100,000

66000

.02033

*00193

*00006

25,600*000

67000

*02030

*00198

.00005

25,400,000

68000

.02049

.00209

,00011

24,400*000

69000

*02000

,00220

,00011

23,500*000

78 JADE AS A MINERAL.

A'o, 18330, Continued.

LOADS AND CORRESPONDING DEFORMATIONS.

.Applied loads
in lbs* per
sq* inch*

C o m p resso-
m e ter read-
ing sin inches*

Change of length in inches*

Modulus of
elasticity*

Actual. |

Difference*

70000

.02072

.00232

.00012

22,700,000

71000

,02090

.00250

.00018

21,300,000

72000

.02006

*00256

*00006

21,000,000

73000

.02102

.00262

*00006

20.900,000

74000

,02108

.00268

.00006

20,700.000

75000

*02114

*00274

.00006

20,500,000

02410

Breaking:

Load,

No. 13268.

Chinese Nephrite.

Area, 1.029 sq. in.

LOADS AND CORRESPONDING

DEFORMATIONS.

Applied loads
in lbs* per
sq. inch.

C o m j> resso-
meter read-
ings in inches.

C h an ge of 1 e n gt h in in eh e s*

Modulus of
elasticity*

Actual* |

Difference*

700

*02220 1

1000

*02230

.00010

7,500,0.00 ?

2000

*02270

.00050

3,000,000

3000

*02287

*00067

.00017

3,300,000

4000

,02294

*00074

.00004

4,050,000

5000

,02300

*00080 1

*00006

4,700,000

6000

.02307

.00087 1

*00007

5.200,000

7000

*02314

.00094

.00007

5.600*000

8000

.02320

.00400

.00006

6,000*000

9000

.02320

.00100

6,700.000

10000

*02326

.00106

.00006

7.000,000

11000

*02339

*00119

.00013

6,300.000?

12000

.02346

.00126

.00007

7,200.000

13000

*02353

.00133

.00007

7,300.000

14000

*02360

*00140

| *00007

7,500,000

15000

*02360

.00140

8,000,000

JADE AS A MINERAL

No, 13368, Continued.

LOADS AND CORRESPONDING DEFORMATIONS.

Ap> lied loads
in lbs* per
sq* inch*

C o an p resso-
nieter read-
ings in inches*

Change of length in inches.

Modulus of
elasticity.

Actual.

Difference,

10000

*02366

.00146

.00006

8,200,000

17000

.02372

.00153

,00006

8,400,000

18000

*02372

.00152

8,900,000

19000

*02378

.00158

.00006

9,000,000

20000

.02384

.00164

*00006

9*100,000

21000

*02384

.00164

9,600,000

22000

.02390

.001 TO

,00006

9,700,000

23000

*02397

,00177

.00007

9,700,000

24000

*02403

*00183

.00006

9,900,000

25000

.02403

.00183

10,200,000

26000

.02410

.00190

.00007

10,300,000

27000

.02420

,00190

28000

*02416

,00196

,00006

10,700,000

29000

*02423

.00203

*00007

10,700,000

30000

.02423

.00203

11,100,000

31000

.02429

.00209

.00006

11,100,000

32000

.02435

.00215

,00006

11,200,000

33000

,02435

*00215

11,500,000

34000

,02440

.00220

.00005

1 1 ,600,000

35000

.02446

.00226

.00006

11,600,000

36000

*02446

.00226

11,900,000

37000

.02451

.00231

.00005

12,000,000

33000

.02457

.00237

.00006

12,000,000

39000

.02463

.00243

.00006

12,000,000

40000

.02468

,00248

*00005

12,100,000

41000

*02468

,00248

12,300,000

42000

,02477

*00257

,00009

12,300,000

43000

,02479

.00259

.00002

12,400,000

44000

*02479

.00259

12,700,000

45000

.02479

.00259

13,000,000

46000

*02485

,00265

.00006

13,000,000

47000

.02490

.00270

.00005

13,000,000

43000

.02495

*00275

,00005

13,100,000

49000

,02500

.00280

.00005

13,200,000

50000

.02500

.00280

13,400,000

51000

.02500

,00280

13,600,000

52000

.02500

.00280

13,900,000

JADE AS A MINE UAL,

No. 13268, Continued.

LOADS AND CORRESPONDING DEFORMATIONS.

Applied loads
in lbs, per
sq. inch.

C o jii p re so-
me ter read-
ings in inches.

Change of length in inches.

Modulus of
elasticity.

Actual

Difference.

53000

.02505

,00285

.00005

13,900.000

54000

,02511

.00291

,00006

13,900,000

55000

.02516

.00296

.00005

13,900,000

5GOOO

,02522

.00302

.00006

14,000,000

57000

.02522

.00302

14,100,000

58000

.02528

,00308

.00006

14,100,000

50000

,02533

.00313

.00005

14,200,000

00000

.02533

.00313

14,300,000

01 000

.02533

,00313

14,600,000

62000

.02539

.00319

.00006

14,600,000

63000

.02544

.00324

.00005

14,600,000

64000

.02550

.00330

,00006

14,600,000

65000

.02555

.00335

.00005

14,600,000

66000

,02 555

.00335

14,700,000

67000

.02555

.00335

14,900,000

68000

.02560

.00340

.00005

15,000,000

69000

,02500

.00340

15,200,000

70000

.02566

.00346

,00006

15,200,000

7X000

,02572

.00352

.00006

15,200,000

72000

.02577

.00357

.00005

15,200,000

73000

.02577

,00357

15,300,000

74000

.02583

.00363

.00006

15,300,000

75000

.02588

.00368

,00005

15,300,000

91836

Breaking'

Load,

JADE AS A MINERAL.

No. 13030.

New Zealand Nephrite.

Area, .952 sq. in.

LOADS AND CORRESPONDING DEFORMATIONS.

Applied loads
in lbs. per
sq. in eh.

C o m p res so-
meter read-
ings in inches.

Change of length in inches-

Modulus of
elasticity.

Actual.

Difference.

500

,00630

800

,00650

.00020

3,000,000

1000

.00650

.00020

3,800,000

2000

,00665

.00035

.00015

4,300,000

3000

.00673

.00043

.00008

5,200,000

4000

,00677

.00047

,00004

6,400,000

5000

,00681

.00051

,00004

7,400,000

6000

,00683

,00053

.00002

8,500,000

7000

.00685

.00055

.00002

9,500,000

8000

.00689

.00059

.00004

10,200,000

0000

,00697

.00067

.Q0O0S

10,100,000

10000

*00698

.00068

,00001

11,000,000

11000

.00699

.00069

,00001

12,000,000

12000

.00700

.00070

,00001

12,800,000

13000

.00703

.00073

.00003

13,400,000

14000

.00701

.00074

,00001

14,200,000

15000

.00705

,00075

,00001

15,000,000

16000

.00706

.00076

,00001

15,800,000

17000

.00706

.00076

16,300,000

18000

*00707

.00077

,00001

17,500,000

19000

,00700

,00079

,00002

18,000,000

20000

,00710

,00080

,00001

18,700,000

21000

,00717

.00087

.00007

13,100,000

22000

.00720

.00090

.00003

18,300,000

23000

.00723

.00093

,00003

18,500,000

24000

,00730

,00100

.00007

18,000,000

25000

,00734

,00104

.00004

18,000.000

26000

,00737

.00107

,00003

18,200,000

27000

.00744

.00114

.00007

17,700,000

28000

.00747

.00117

.00003

17,900*000

29000

,00750

.00120

.00003

18,100,000

30000

,00755

.00125

,00005

18,500.000

31000

.00759

.00129

.00004

18,000,000

32000

.00763

.00133

.00004

18,000,000

33000 1

,00767

.00137

.00004

18,000,000

JADE AS A MINERAL.

No. 130S0, Continued.

LOADS AND CORRESPONDING DEFORMATIONS.

Applied loads
in lbs* per
sq* inch*

C o m p r es so-
met er read-
ings in inches.

Change of length in inches.

—

Modulus of
elasticity*

Actual,

Difference.

:hooo

*00770

.00140

.00003

18,200,000

35000

.00774

.00144

,00004

18,200,000

36000

.00786

.00156

.00012

17,300,000

37000

.00790

.00160

*00004

17,300,000

38000

*00790

.00160

17,800,000

39000

,00795

.00165

,00005

17,700,000

40000

.00799

*00369

*00004

17,700,000

41000

.00799

.00169

18,100.000

42000

*00803

*00173

,00004

18,200*000

43000

.00807

.00177

*00004

18,200,000

44000

.00816

.00186

*00009

17,700,000

45000

.0082 5

,00195

.00009

17,300,000

46000

.00830

.00200

.00005

17,200*000

47000

,00834

*00204

.00004

17,200,000

48000

.00839

.00209

.00005

17,200,000

40000

,00843

,00213

.00004

17,200,000

50000

.00847

.00217

.00004

17,200,000

51000

.00857

.00227

.00010

18*800,000

52000

.00861

.00231

,00004

16,800*000

53000

.00866

*00236

.00005

16*800,000

54000

,00871

.00241

*00005

16*800,000

55000

*00876

.00246

*00005

16,700*000

56000

.00881

.00251

.00005

16,700,000

57000

,00886

.00256

*00005

16,700,000

58000

.00891

.00261

*00005

16*800,000

59000

*00891

,00261

10,900,000

60000

.00896

,00266

,00005

16,900*000

61000

.00902

*00272

,00006

16*800,000

62000

.00902

.00272

17*100*000

63000

.00907

,00277

.00005

17,000*000

04000

*00913

.00283

,00006

16*900,000

65000

.00919

*00289

.00006

16,800*000

66000

.00924

,00294

*00005

16,800,000

67000

*00930

.00300

.00006

16,700*000

68000

.00935

.00305

,00005

16*700,000

69000

.00946

.00316

,00011

16,400,000

70000

,00952

.00322

,00000

16*300,000

JADE AS A MINERAL,

No. 13030 , Continued,

LOADS AND CORRESPONDING DEFORMATIONS,

Applied loa ds
hi lbs. per
sq. inch.

C o m p resso-
meter read-
ings in inches.

Change of length in inches.

Modulus of
elasticity.

Actual,

Difference.

71000

,00957

,00327

,00005

16,200,000

72000

.00970

,00346

,00019

15,600,000

73000

.00982

.00352

,00006

15,500,000

74000

.00994

,00364

.00012

15,300,000

75000

,01000

.00370

.00006

15*700,000

92332

Breaking:

Load.

No. 13102D,

Burmese Jadeite,
Area, ,0496 sq, In.

LOADS AND

CORRESPONDING DEFORMATIONS,

Applied loads
in lbs. per
sq, inch.

C o m p resso-
meter read-
ings in inches.

Change of length in inches.

Modulus of
elasticity.

Actual,

Difference.

500

1Q0G

.0022S

2000

.00232

,00004

37,500,000

3000

.00238

,00010

.00006

22,500,000

4000

.00241

,00013

.00003

23,000,000

5000

.00241

,00013

28,800,000

6000

.00246

.00018

,00005

25,000,000

7000

.00250

.00022

.00004

23,900,000

8000

,00250

.00022

27,300,000

9000

.00250

.00022

30,700,000

10000

.00250

,00022

34,100.000

11000

.00250

.00022

37,500,000

12000

.00250

.00022

41,000,000

13000

.00255

.00027

.00005

36,200,000

14000

.00355

,00027

39,000,000

15000

.00255

.00027

41,700,000

16000

.00260

.00032

,00005

37,500,000

JADE AS A MINERAL.

No. 13103D, Continued.

LOADS AND CORRESPONDING DEFORMATIONS.

App lied loads
m lbs, per
sq. inch.

C o in p resso
meter read-
ing-sin inches.

Change of length in inches.

Modulus of
elasticity.

Actual.

Difference*

17000

.00260

.00032

39,800,000

18000

,00265

*00037

.00005

36,500,000

19000

.00270

,00042

*00005

34,000*000

20000

.00270

.00042

35,700,000

21000

.00275

,00047

*00005

33,500,000

22000

.00275

*00047

35,100,000

23000

.00275

.00047

36,700,000

24000

.00279

*00051

.00004

So, 300 ,000

25000

.00279

*00051

36,800,000

26000

.00279

*00051

38,300,000

27000

.00279

*00051

39,700,000

28000

.00284

,00056

*00005

37,500,000

20000

.00284

,00056

38,800,000

30000

.00284

,00056

40400,000

31000

*00284

.00056

41,500,000

32000

,00284

*00056

42,800.000

33000

,00284

.00056

44,200,000

34000

,00284

.00058

45,500,000

35000

*00284

.00056

47,000.000

36000

*00289

*00061

*00005

44,200,000

37000

,00294

,00066

,00005

42,100,000

38000

.00294 |

,00086

43,200,000

39000

*00298

.00070

.00004

41,800,000

40000

*00303

.00075

,00005

40,000,000

41000

.00324

Breaking*

.00096

Load.

.00021

32,000,000

JADE AS A MINERAL

No. 13215,
Burmese Jadeite,

Area, ,7634 sq, in,

LOADS AND CORRESPONDING DEFORMATIONS.

Applied loads
in lbs. per
sq. inch.

Comp resso-
meter read-
ings in inches.

Change of length in inches.

Modulus of
elasticity.

Actual*

Difference*

500

1000

*01120

.01130

.00010

7,500,000

2000

,01134

.00014

*00004

10,700,000

3000

,01137

*00017

.00003

13,200,000

4000

,01137

*00017

17,600,000

5000

.01141

,00021

.00004

17,900,000

6000

*01141

.00021

21,400,000

7000

.01145

*00025

.00004

21,000,000

8000

*01149

*00029

*00004

20,700,000

9000

,01149

*00029

23,200,000

10000

*01149

.00029

25,800,000

11000

.01153

*00033

*00004

25,000,000

12000

.01153

.00033

27,300,000

13000

*31153

.00033

29,600,000

14000

.01153

.00033

31,800,000

15000

.01153

,00033

34,100,000

16000

,01153

.00033

36,400,000

17000

.01157

.00037

-00004

34,500.000

18000

.01157

*00037

36,500,000

19000

.01157

.00037

38,500,000

20000

*01161

,00041

*00004

36,600,000

21000

*01166

,00046

*00005

34,300,000

22000

,01166

*00046

35,900,000

23000

.01166

*00046

37,500,000

24000

.01166

*00046

39,100,000

25000

.01166

,00046

40,700,000

26000

.01170

.00050

*00004

39,000,000

27000

,01170

*00050

40,500,000

28000

,01174

*00054

,00004

38,900,000

29000

*01174

.00054

40,200,000

30000

.01178

,00053

.00004

38,800,000

31000

,01178

,00058

40,000.000

32000

,01182

*00062

.00004

38,700,000

33000

*01182

*00062

39,900,000

34000

.01182

*00062

41,100,000

JADE AS A MINERAL.

No. 13215, Continued.

LOADS AND CORRESPONDING DEFORMATIONS.

applied loads
in lbs* per
sq. inch.

Comp resso-
meter read-
ing-sin inches.

Change of length in inches.

Modulus of
elasticity.

Actual.

Difference.

35000

.01186

.00060

.00004

39,800,000

:moo

*01190

.00070

.00004

38,600,000

37000

.01190

.00070

39,600,000

38000

.01190

.00070

40,700.000

39000

.01194

.00074

.00004

39,500,000

40000

.01194

.00074

40,500,000

41000

.01198

.00078

.00004

39,400,000

42000

.01198

.00078

40,400,000

43000

.01198

.00078

41,700,000

44000

.01202

.00082

.00004

40,300,000

45000

.01202

.00082

41,200,000

40000

.01207

.00087

.00005

39,600,000

47000

.01311

.00091

.00004

38,700,000

48000

.01211

.00091

39,600,000

49000

.01216

.00096

.00005

38,300,000

50000

.01216

.00096

39,000,000

51000

.01210

.00096

39,800.000

52000

.01216

.00096

40,600,000

53000

.01220

.00100

.00004

39,700,000

54000

.01238

.00118

.00018

34,300,000

* 55000

.01328
* Breaking

.00208

Load.

.00090

19,800,000

JADE A3 A MINERAL,

No. 13214.

Chinese Nephrite.

Area, .9627 sq. in.

LOADS AND CORRESPONDING DEFORMATIONS.

Applied loads
in llis* per
sq. inch.

(’ o in p res so-

Change of length in inches.

Modulus of
elasticity*

meter read
jug's in in dies.

Actual,

Difference,

500

600

.02490

,02495

.00005

9,000,000

700

.08500

.00010

.00005

5,200,000

800

.02500

,00010

6,000,000

900

.02505

.00015

.00005

4,500,000

1000

.02505

.00015

5,000,000

2000

.02511

.00021

.00006

7,100,000

3000

.02517

.00027

.00006

8,300,000

4000

*02522

.00032

.00005

9,400,000

5000

.02522

.00032

11,700,000

0000

.02528

.00038

.00006

11,800,000

7000

.02528

,00038

13,800,000

8000

.02528

,0003$

15,700,000

9000

.02528

.00038

17,800,000

10000

.02528

.00038

19,700,000

11000

*02533

,00043

.00005

19,400,000

12000

.02533

.00043

20,900,000

13000

,02533

.00043

22,600,000

14000

.02533

*00043

24,100,000

15000

*02533

,00043

26,200,000

16000

.02539

.00049

.00006

24,500,000

17000

.02539

.00049

26,000,000

18000

.02544

.00054

.00005

25,000.000

19000

.02544

.00054

26,400,000

20000

.02544

.00054

27,800,000

21000

.02550

,00060

.00006

26,300,000

22000

*02550

,00060

27.500,000

23000

.02530

.00065

.00005

26,500,000

24000

.02550

.00065

27,700,000

25000

.03550

.00065

28,900,000

26000

.02560

*00070

.00005

27,800,000

37000

.02560

,00070

28,900,000

28000

*02560

,00070

30,000,000

20000

*02566

.00076

,00006

28,600,000

30000

.02566

.00076

29,600,000

.JADE AS A MINERAL.

No, 13214, Continued.

LOADS AND CORRESPONDING DEFORMATIONS.

Applied loads
in lbs* per
sq* inch*

C o m p ressc-
meter read-
ings in inches.

Change of length in inches*

Modulus of
elasticity.

Actual.

Difference,

31000

*02566

.00076

30,600*000

32000

.02572

.00082

.00006

29,300,000

33000

*02577

*00087

.00005

28,400,000

34000

.02583

.00093

.00006

27,400,000

35000

.02583

,00098

.00005

26,800,000

36000

*025SS

.00098

27,500,000

37000

.02588

.00098

28,300,000

38000

*02594

.00104

.00006

27,400,000

39000

.02599

.00109

,00005

26,800,000

40000

*00109

27,500,000

41000

*02599

*00109

28,200,000

42000

,02605

.00115

.00006

27,400,000

43000

,02605

,00115

28,000,000

44000

.02603

.00115

23,600,000

45000

*02605

.00115

29,300,000

46000

.02605

*00115

29,900.000

47000

.02610

.00120

.00005

29,400,000

4S000

,02615

*00125

.00005

29,600,000

40000

.02620

.00130

.00005

28,200,000

50000

.02620

.00130

23,800,000

51000

.02620

*00130

29,400,000

52000

.02620

*00130

29,900,000

53000

.02625

.00135

.00005

29,400,000

54000

.02630

.00140

.00005

28,900*000

55000

.02630

.00140

29,400,000

56000

.02635

,00145

.00005

29*000,000

57000

.02640

.00150

.00005

23,500,000

5 SO 00

.02645

*00155

.00005

28,000,000

50000

.02650

.00160

.00005

27,600,000

60000

.02655

,00165

,00005

27,300,000

61000

*02659

.00169

*00004

27,000,000

62000

.02664

*00174

.00005

26,700,000

63000

.02669

.00179

*00005

26,400,000

64000

,02674

*00184

.00005

26,100,000

65000

*02674

.00184

26,400,000

66000

*02678

.00188

.00004

26,300,000

67000

.02680

.00190

.00002

26,400,000

JADE AS A MINERAL. 89

if o. 13314, Continued.

LOADS AND CORRESPONDING DEFORMATIONS.

Applied loads
in lbs, per
sq. inch.

C g m p resso-
meter read-
ing sin inches.

Change of leu

gth in inches.

Modulus of
elasticity.

Actual,

Difference.

6 SO 00

,02683

.00193

,00003

26,500,000

GD000

,02634

,00194

,00001

26,600,000

70000

.02686

,00196

,00002

26,800,000

71000

,02687

,00197

.00001

27,000,000

72000

.02687

.00197

27,400,000

73000

.026S7

.00197

27,800,000

74000

,02692

,00202

.00005

27,500,000

75000

.02696

.00306

.00004

27,300,000

76000

.02701

.00211

,00005

27,000,000

77000

,02705

.00215

.00004

26,800,000

7 8000

.02710

.00220

.00005

26,600,000

79000

.02714

,00224

.00004

26,400,000

80000

05150

.02718

Breaking -

.0022$

Load.

,00004

26,300,000

Amount of Deformation . — On comparing the columns
of “Differences” in the tables given above, it will be noted
that the amount of compression for each additional load of
1000 lbs. per square inch of area was very uniform through-
out the whole set of tests. With few exceptions the
maximum variation for the whole 400 observations taken
was about .0001 of an inch, and the majority of the varia-
tions were within .00003 of an inch. This uniformity is
slightly more apparent in the tests of nephrite than in
jadeite.

In many instances, particularly with the jadeite, several
increments of load would be added before any additional
increase in deformation would be observed. Tu this
respect it was more erratic than the nephrite. However,
considering the very small value of these measurements
and the fact that the specimens were not duplicates, the
results are really quite wonderful. Attention must also
be called to the fact that all the variation recorded is not

JADE AS A MINERAL.

due to deformation of the specimen. A certain proportion
must be charged to unavoidable errors in reading the
instrument, and a considerable portion to errors in the
instrument itself. The Olsen compressometer used was
the only one obtainable suited for so short a ganged length
as | of an inch. It read directly to only T1r ihnr (-0001) of
an inch, and smaller values were estimated. The instru-
ment was not as accurate as claimed by its maker, though
by carefully standardizing, and obtaining its errors for the
range over which it was used, it was possible, by applying
corrections, to get quite accurate observations. An initial
load of 500 to 1000 lbs. per square inch was applied before
readings were begun, and most of the records are not to be
fully depended upon until a load of 2500 lbs. per square
inch has been reached. By that time specimen and
instrument have settled to a rigid bearing and the readings
become logical.

The total amount of compression as expressed in per-
centage of the gauged length of $ of an inch is also quite
uniform. On the four specimens where measurements
were obtained at loads of 75,000 lbs. per square inch, the
amounts of compression were practically An A, An and Ar
of 1 per cent — a variation of only Ar of 1 per cent, in
all. With the two jadeites from Burma, which broke at
40,000 lbs. and 55.000 lbs. per square inch respectively,
measurements made at 40.000 lbs. per square inch on each
give exactly the same amount of compression; viz.. At °f
1 per cent.

Numerous attempts were made to determine if perma-
nent set remained after tlie application and removal of
certain definite loads, but the amounts were so small, if
any really existed, they were beyond the capacity of the
instrument to measure accurately, so tlie plan was
abandoned.

Specimens Nos. 13336, 13268, and 13030 were measured
laterally while sustaining a load of 75,000 lbs. per square
inch, and these dimensions were found to have increased
in proportion as tlie vertical dimensions had decreased.
With one exception (which may have been an error in

JADE AS A MINERAL.

reading), this expansion in each direction was from 1 to §
of tlie total compression which the cube had suffered
owing to the load it was supporting.

Elastic Limit — With the possible exceptions of Nos.
13102 D and 13215, none of the specimens showed any
clearly defined Elastic Limit under the loads for which
deformations were measured. The two exceptions crushed
before the instrument was removed, so deformation read-
ings were taken up to the point of failure. In these two
instances there is a large increase in the amount of com*
press ion just previous to the failure (see Plate of Stress*
Diagrams) and would seem to indicate an Elastic Limit,
though the point is so near the breaking load it is quite
probable that final disintegration had begun.

Modulus of Elasticity . — The modulus of elasticity was
calculated for each deformation measured. In computing

this the well-known formula M — was employed, in
which

E — modulus
p = unit load
d = unit deformation

It will be observed from the tables that the modulus of
elasticity lias a marked variation for the different speci-
mens, and for different loads on the same specimen, but
this is to be expected with such material. It is well
known that tile modulus of elasticity of stone is quite
variable, and increases with increase of load over quite
large ranges of application, often differing by several
millions in value. This characteristic is very marked in
these tests, but as a whole the results are surprisingly
regular when one takes into consideration the widely
varying character of the specimens, the very small length
measured, on account of which a slight variation in the
fourth decimal place of measurement would make a differ-
ence of hundreds of thousands in calculating the value of
the modulus.

JADE AS A MINERAL.

The varying value of the modulus for each specimen are
clearly shown in the accompanying diagram, where all the
moduli for each test were plotted to scale, and the average
curves drawn.

In all cases the modulus gradually increased with the
load ; sometimes this continued to the point where the
instrument was removed, as in the nephrite from China,
No. 13268; sometimes it rose to a maximum and prac-
tically held there, with moderate fluctuations for some
time, then reduced slightly as in the case of the New
Zealand nephrite No. 13030, and the Chinese nephrite No.
13214, while in the case of the Burmese jadeite No. 13336
it rose to a maximum in the same way, then took a decided
fall with gradual regularity.

The two jadeites from Burma, No. 1321/5 and No. 131021),
both crushed while the compressometer was still attached,
and they both show a sharp falling off of the modulus dur-
ing the application of the last few thousand pounds of
load. This was undoubtedly due to incipient failure of the
specimen. The former — No. 13215 — gives a very regular
curve, but the curve of the latter is exceedingly erratic in
its character, for which no cause is apparent. Probably
due to errors in reading the instrument.

The most remarkable feature of these figures, and
the one which shows more clearly than anything
else the wonderful tenacity and elasticity of this rare
mineral, is the very high value which the modulus
attains.

The minimum value is 3,000,000 and the highest

47.000. 000. Four specimens gave a maximum of over

30.000. 000, and for No. 13268 (the lowest record) the
maximum was 15,000,000.

The extraordinary character of these figures will be best
understood by reference to the following table, giving the
approximate values of the modulus of elasticity' for vari-
ous well-known materials as determined by United States
Government tests :

. - I

JADE AS A MINERAL.

Steel,

28,000,000 to SO, 000,000

Cast Iron,

12,000,000 “

27,000,000

Marble, t

6,000,000 “

14,000,000

Blue Stone,

4,000,000 “

9,000,000

Granite, ,

2,000,000 “

9,000,000

Limestone,

8,000,000 "

5,000,000

Sandstone,

1,000,000 “

5,000,000

JADE,

. , . 3,000,000 “

47,000,000

The figures given for stone are considerably higher than
those given by Professor Bauschinger from investigations
on Bavarian stone.

ittM'nVl'iiil 1 '„ k •

TENSION TESTS.

Tliese also were made by Professor Woolson with the
same Emery Hydraulic Testing-Machine, and on specimens
of the carefully selected and typical material already
described as having been used in the other tests ; viz.:
1333G, jadeite from Burma; 13268, nephrite from China ;
and 13030, nephrite from New Zealand. Only one speci-
men of each was tested. They were of the shape and size
shown in the annexed diagram.

JADE AS A MINERAL.

The results are here tabulated :

Material

Source. .

No. ou Specimen . .

Thickness.

Average width at
Fracture ....

Area at Fracture . .

Maximum Load. . .

Strength per sq.
inch

Character of Frac-
ture . ■

Time of Test . .

Burma

.570 inches

.564 inches
.265 sq. inches
1340 lbs.

5050 lbs.

Square across

10 minutes

Nephrite

China

13268

.505 inches

.540 inches
.270 sq. inches
1620 lbs.

5959 lbs.

Somewhat ragged
and at an angle

8 minutes

Nephrite
New Zealand
13030

.517 inches

.700 inches
.302 sq. inches
1070 lbs.

5442 lbs.

Quite irregular
and ragged

11 minutes

Remarks : Seams in structure of Nos. 13268 and 13030 turned white
when nearing the maximum load.

At a pull of 1920 lbs. the first crack occurred in No. 13030, and the
specimen opened on one side.

The figures are very uniform, but are in no way as
striking as the compression tests. The specimens were so
short it was impossible to attach an instrument for meas-
uring the deformation, so the ultimate strength was the
only result obtained.

The great cohesive power of jade is very clearly shown
by these tests of Woolson and Page. It is this wonderful
resistance to stresses of every kind which conduces to
the enduring quality of the mineral and makes it pos-
sible to carve it into the most delicate forms and impart
to it such a high polish. Crystals of diopside, trem elite,
and actinolifce, the equivalents of the jade minerals in com-
position and hardness, possess none of the great tenacity
which isolates nephrite and jadeite. After what has been
said above, however, under the head of Structure, it is not

JADE AS A MINEKAL.

difficult to understand that this great difference in cohe-
siveness is to be traced to the fibrous character of jade, the
individuals which compose the mass being so compactly
felted, woven, and twisted together that the whole pos-
sesses a power of resistance to fracture or to cutting far
above that of the individuals themselves.

It is said of nephrite, as of almost every rock or mineral
that is mined, that when first taken from the mine it is
susceptible of being much more readily worked than later.
There is a possibility that while it still contains a little
quarry-water it may be a trifle more readily worked, but
this has never been proved. Indeed, it is the difficulty of
quarrying jade that impels the quarry-men of Burma to
resort to the use of fire in detaching the jade mass from its
bed. This difficulty was %vell illustrated in the writer’s
experience at the Jordansmuhl quarry in April, 1899, when
an attempt was made by drilling and blasting to remove
the large block of nephrite weighing 2140 kilogrammes,
now in the Bishop Collection. After a few blows on the
head of the drill the point broke off, much to the surprise
of the workmen, and the blasting had to be abandoned.

FRACTURE.

The fibrous structure which gives to the jade minerals
their exceptional tenacity is again expressed in their mode
of fracture. Botli jadeite and nephrite possess a very per-
fect cleavage parallel to the prismatic planes of their crys-
tals ; but as a rule the individuals are so small in both
minerals that these cleavages are imperceptible and the
fracture surface is very uneven, splintery, and as though
dusted over with minute slivers of the substance, the rough-
ness being readily felt if the finger be drawn across the sur-
face. It may best be likened to the surface of broken horn.

This type of fracture is, however, particularly character-
istic of nephrite. The more granular jadeite, especially
that of coarser grain, breaks with a distinctly granular
fracture often not unlike that of marble — the cleavage of
each grain being visible in the numerous glistening facets

JADE AS A MINERAL.

that stud the surface. But even this granular fracture-
surface is more or less rough and splintery , thus testifying
to the tenacity with which the particles cling to one
another.

HARDNESS.

Hardness, or the degree to which a substance resists
abrasion, is one of the simplest and one of the most prac-
tical means of distinguishing minerals, and especially in
distinguishing jadeite from nephrite. It has been found
that the hardness of pure nephrite is quite constant at 6,6
of the Mohs scale, or that of microcline feldspar, 1 e ., it can
be scratched by quartz, but will not scratch quartz;
whereas jadeite when pure is very constant at 7 (the hard-
ness of rock-crystal), but it can be scratched by agate
or chalcedony, which are a trifle harder than the crys-
talline varieties of quartz (rock-crystal and amethyst).
Consequently jadeite will scratch nephrite, especially when
it is polished. If, therefore, a slab of polished nephrite be
plainly scratched by a jade mineral, the latter cannot be
nephrite and may be classed as jadeite. This, however, is
true only of pure jadeite and pure nephrite. Errors may
arise from the admixture of other minerals, in greater or
smaller quantities. In some pieces these can be detected
by the naked eye, or with the aid of a pocket lens, but can
most surely be detected and identified by microscopic
examination of thin sections.

The hardness, according to the Mohs scale, of every piece
in the Bishop Collection was determined by the present
writer, by the methods common among mineralogists, and
by means of finely pointed triers made of the following
minerals :

Topaz, with a hardness of 8
Quartz, with a hardness of 7
Microcline feldspar, with a hardness of 6.5
Orthoclase feldspar, with a hardness of 6
Apatite, with a hardness of 5

To corroborate the results thus obtained and for pur-

JADE AS A MINERAL.

poses oC comparison, a set of six additional triers was made
from typical pieces of jadeite and nephrite in the Collec-
lection. These, like the fire already mentioned, consisted
of small prismatic sections, 4 to i) mm. in breadth, and 10
to 20 mm. in length, pointed at each end. They were as
follows :

13210 Grade jade from Silesia, No* 1 — Hardness 6.5 Mohs scale

13211 14

1 1

14 Siberia, f *

2—

6.5

13030

1 1

New Zealand, “

3 —

6.5

13267 "

“ Burmaj

4—

1 1

13268 "

t *

44 China,

5 —

6,5

13213 ■*

t i

4 4 Burma, u

6—

The triers were held firmly in the liand and then steadily
drawn across the specimen to be tested for a distance of
usually not more than 2 to 5 mm. The trier of the lowest
hardness was first used, and then the next higher in
regular succession until a scratch could be obtained, and
owing to the extreme fineness of the points so delicate was
this scratch that it was scarcely discernible by the naked
eye. Indeed, in many cases it was necessary to use a
pocket lens. In almost every instance the result was
obtained with little difficulty, for even the mlneralogical
pieces had been polished on one side to show more clearly
the color of a polished surface as well as that of the natural
fracture or cleavage, and every archaeological object, had
either a polished or a smooth surface. Nephrite was not
affected by ortlioclase feldspar (unless part of it was
decomposed), it was scarcely marked by microcline feld-
spar, but could readily be scratched by quartz. Jadeite
was not affected by microcline feldspar, scarcely by quartz,
but markedly by chalcedony and agate points, which,
although quartz, are slightly harder; and of course the
jadeite of Burma scratched the nephrite from Silesia,
Siberia, and New Zealand,

In addition to these tests, 16 pieces were selected to be
tested by the Microsclerometer, the ingenious instrument
invented by Dr, Thomas Augustus Jaggar, Jr., of Harvard
University, whose results, however, are stated according to
a new scale in which corundum (corresponding to 9 in the

JADE AS A MINERAL.

Mohs scale) has an empirical value of 1000 assigned to it.
His report is as follows :

MICROSGLEROMETER TESTS OF HARDNESS.

BY THOMAS AUGUSTUS JAGG A It. JR.

’

The only accurate mechanical tests of the hardness of
jade that have been made, so far as known to the writer, are
those by Martens {Zeitschr* fur Ethnologie , Vol. XXIV.,
p. 248, 1892), for use in testing the hardness of metal in the
Technical High School at Chari ofctenburg, Prussia. The
mean width of scratch made by a diamond point of known
dimensions, under constant weights, is taken as the deter-
minant of relative hardness. A cone-shaped cut diamond
of 90° angular cross-section, is held, point downward, in the
end of a balance arm ; a polished surface of the mineral is
drawn under this point on a sliding carriage, and scratches
are so produced under weights varying from 10 to 30
grammes. The mean width of scratch (b) for 20 grammes
is taken from direct readings under that weight, and the
mean of weights greater and less (10, 15, 25, and 30
grammes). The measurement of width of scratch is made
with the microscope, using the ocular screw-micrometer
and the Zeiss B objective (0.1 mm. equal to 7.382 rotations
(R) of micrometer screw). Three faces of the nephrite
were cut in different directions on the same specimen, and
uniformly polished, and scratches were made in two direc-
tions at right angles to each other on each face. The
reciprocal values of the width of scratch (in mm.) are given
as hardness grades. Unfortunately no tests with the Mohs
scale are recorded as having been made by this method,
and we have only metals for comparison. The following
table shows the values "obtained for this specimen of
nephrite ;

JADE AS A MINERAL.

Face

Direction of
scratch

Mean width of
scratch b P expressed
in rotations It

Hardness

H=l/bX7.882,0.1

1 a

0M0

139

1 b

0.353

210

0.394

187

2 b

0.406

182

III

8 a

0.362

304

0.344

214

Steel,

blue tempered

0.465

159

Steel.

yellow tempered

0.336

191

In the following pages are recorded the results of tests
made with the microsclerometer, for a full description of
which see the American Journal of Science^ Vol. IV.,
December, 1897, and ZeitschHft fur Krystallographie
etc*, XXIX Bd., 3rd Heft, p. 262. The object of this
instrument, like that of Martens, is to provide a precise
method of measuring the resistance of a smooth surface of
a substance to abrasion by a diamond point*

The principle of the instrument is as follows : A diamond
point of constant dimensions is rotated on an oriented
mineral section under uniform rate of rotation and uniform
weight to a uniform depth. The number of rotations of
the point, a measure of the duration of the abrasion, varies
as the resistance of the mineral to abrasion by diamond :
this is the property measured. The instrument consists of
the following parts,

(1) A standard and apparatus for adjusting to microscope;

(2) A balance beam and its yoke ;

(3) A rotary diamond in its end ;

(4) Apparatus for rotating uniformly ;

(5) Apparatus for recording rotations ;

(6) Apparatus for locking and releasing ;

(7) Apparatus for recording depth ;

100

JADE AS A MINERAL.

and it admits of measurement with any one of the four
variables, rate, weight, depth, or duration. The last has
been found most practical because it gives the highest
values and hence admits of the most delicate gradation.

For the tests with jade the diamond point was perfectly
centred so that its action was that of a drill. The microm-
eter scale was arranged parallel to a cross-hair of the
ocular, set in the 4 5° position from lower right-hand
quadrant to upper left, and the inclination of the scale was
so adjusted that the three scale divisions nearest the centre
should record a change of focus representing a boring to a
depth of 15 u. It is important that these focal measure-
ments be read always on the same part of the field of the
ocular, as there is considerable variation in different parts,
due to aberration. It is also necessary to adopt a uniform
criterion of focal perfection, though the sharp focus is
more easily read on a line scale ( t l t mm.) highly inclined,
than on the coarse one (^) formerly used. With a little
practice the depth may be accurately read to within
,0005 mm. of \fi. The rate adopted for these tests was 10
revolutions of the diamond per second, and the weight
used was 40 grammes. Polished sections of each specimen,
averaging 0.4 mm. thick, were made and mounted on
glass. An interesting check on the results attained was
furnished by the degree of polish taken by different slides,
and sometimes by different parts of the same preparation.
As shown by Behrens {Anleitmig zur MikrocJiemische
Analyse, 1895) the harder portions take the higher polish.
Where more than one value for the same preparation is
given in the following pages, the reference is to different
parts of the same surface. Under a high power in the
microscope the borings show an outer ring and a central
pit; this is due to the fact that the diamond point,
microscopically, is not a perfect pyramidal point, but is a
minute nipple surmounting edges which diverge at a wider
angle ; the nipple bores the core and when the edges are
reached the outer ring is abraded ; the boring may thus
be described as somewhat funnel-shaped, steep about the
centre and flaring above. In accordance with this

irregularity in the shape of the point, it is found that the
downward movement of the micrometer per unit of depth
is much more rapid at the beginning of a test than toward
the end, when the retardation is very great after the first
nipple tip is passed. The borings are seen to be perfectly
clean, with the filings usually piled in a ring about the
periphery. Slight sources of error in this series of tests
are irregularities of rate and of initial surface and texture
of preparation ; all results are averaged from at least three
tests with each preparation. Uniformity of results was
neither expected nor attained with jade surfaces, as the
texture is extremely various and the substance is usually
both mineralogically a mixture, and chemically impure.
Constant results can be expected only from definite
crystals of uniform composition and on a surface of known
orientation relative to crystallographic form.

As a basis for comparison special tests with the harder
minerals of the Mohs scale were made by exactly the same
procedure as was used throughout for the series of jade
specimens, and gave the res Lilts shown below ; the hardness
value is expressed in all cases with reference to a value for
Corundum of 1000. It will be seen that the number of
rotations of the diamond point, under 40 grammes weight,
at the rate of ten rotations per second, to a depth of 15/*, on
a corundum cleavage surface, was 25,814 ; if we give this
mineral the empirical value of 1000 the corundum unit
becomes 25,814. Each value as expressed in rotations of
the boring point, for other minerals, is divided by this
unit.

Corundum

Cleavage rhombohedron,

Topaz

Basal,

Quartz

Average of prism and basal sections, 1525.66 59.1

In the following description of tests with specimens of

102

JADE AS A MINERAL.

nephrite and jadeite, the specific gravity, color, chemical
characteristics, and petrographical peculiarities are
appended in each case for comparison. The specimens
are arranged in the order of increasing hardness.

13251. Lake-dweller’s hatchet from Lake Constance, show-
ing influence of heat, burnt jade” ; specific

gravity, 2.9035 ; color, ashy-gray ; nephrite, —
fibrous.

Petrography : In this thin section there is a faint
suggestion of the patches derived from previous
pyroxene, bat the amphibole fibres are in a con-
fused aggregation, with occasionally longer
streaks of nearly parallel fibres. There is a yel-
lowish stain in part of the section which seems to
be occasioned by hydrous oxide of iron. A brown
mineral in thin plates resembles mica. No polish.

Hardness : Too soft for these tests. About like
flnorite in its action, the diamond bores through
to the glass at once. Possibly the preparation is
too thin. The material is softer, however, than
any other in the collection examined.

13210. Crude jade from Jordansmuhl, Silesia, Prussia;

specific gravity, 2.9451 ; percentage of silica,
54.44; color, spinach-green, unevenly blended
with black ; nephrite.

Petrography : Numerous compact prisms of am-
phibole with marked microstructure. The prisms
grade into fibres, are in parallel groups, and cross
each other. No polish ; fibrous in appearance.

Hardness :

Revolutions Hardness

(1) 333.8 = 12.9

(2) 87.5 = 3.3 narrow soft streak.

Remarks: Tests were made in lines across differ-
ent parts of the slide, giving the following
results: 1st line — 344, 49G, 244, 341. Second
line— 112, 63, 244.

soft area

Bwnai

JADE AS A MINERAL,

13267, Fragment of boulder from Burma ; specific gravity,
3.1223; percentage of silica, 57,36; color, lettuce-
green.

Analysis shows an intermediate composition be-
tween jadeite and nephrite, with alumina 10,
magnesia 12, and soda 1. This is borne out by
the specific gravity.

Petrography : Classed as a mixture of jadeite and
amphbole ; the prisms acicnlar, and fibrous,
Ampliibole pale green and pleochroic.

Hardness :

Revolutions Hardness

624.5 = 24.2

Remarks: Slide is irregularly polished, as though
portions were harder, and this is confirmed by
one abnormally hard reading as shown in follow-
ing readings across slide : 557, 487, 587, 1403, 218,
495. This accords with the probability of the
mass being a mixture of nephrite with a little of
the harder jadeite.

13223. Hatchet from Jfeufclmtel, Switzerland ; specific
gravity, 3.0034 ; percentage of silica, 55.49 ; color,
light olive-green. Composition of normal ne-
phrite — high magnesia and lime.

Petrography : Most extreme case of a nephrite
with parallel fibres, with striations that seem
to be due to twinning parallel to ortliopinacoid.
Brown and white fibre zones.

Hardness :

Revolutions Hardness

695.5 = 26.9 average

869. — 33.6 brown zone

522. = 20.2 white zone.

Remarks : Readings 447, 597 white ; 661, 1077
brown.

13214. Chinese boulder ; specific gravity, 2.9825 ; percent-

104

JADE AS A MINERAL.

age of silica, 5S*59; color, light sage-green;
nephrite.

Analysis-) quite normal, high in magnesia and
lime*

Petrography : A few fragments of jadeite remain ;
the mass of the rock consisting of am phi bole
fibres, that in places reach the size of compact
crystals.

Hardness :

Revolutions Hardness

694.66 = 26.9

Remarks : Readings 667, 716, 701*

13211. Part of boulder from Bel a] a River, near Irkutsk ;

specific gravity, 3.0138 : percentage of silica,
57.65 ; color, brilliant seaweed-green ; nephrite,
very high in calcium.

Petrography : Mottled patches map out the former
pyroxene crystals, now altered to long streaks of
parallel fibres of nephrite.

Hardness :

Revolutions Hardness

750.fi = 29.0
soft area = 458. — 17.7

Remarks: 441, 475, 688, 830, 799, 685.
soft area

13268. Small boulder of white Chinese jade ; specific
gravity, 2.9690 ; percentage of silica, 57.43 ; color,
greenish-gray ; the surface incrnsted with a
patina of many shades from black to light brown.
Nephrite, normal analysis, with high magnesia.

Petrography : Coarse mottled patches representing
the areas of original jadeite crystals, now altered
to fan-like and sphern'Iitio bundles of nephrite
fibres. Other bundles in cross-section. Thus a
close, but coarse, mesh of fibres.

Hardness :

Revolutions Hardness

768.66 = 29.7

Remarks : Readings 832, 770, 704.

JADE AS A MINERAL.

105

13262R. White medallion, formerly part of a sceptre ;

specific gravity, 2.9510 ; percentage of silica,
57.77 ; color, opalescent white ; normal nephrite
composition.

Petrography : Large patches consisting of a
microscopic aggregation of fibres of colorless
araphibole that extinguish light between crossed
nicols ; these patches correspond to the origi-
nally twinned jadeite. There is also a mottling
similar in size to that noticed in the large crys-
tals of jadeite where it was the result of strain.

Hardness :

lie volutions Hardness

1437.66 = 55.6

Remarks: Constant readings — 1462, 1398, 1453*
The sudden jump to double former hardness
values should be noted*

3095. Jadeite from Burma ; specific gravity, 3.3287 ; color,
emerald-green blending into lighter tints ; no
analysis*

Petrography : A fibrous modification of jadeite
which might almost be mistaken for fibrous
amphibole.

Hardness ;

Revolutions Hardness

1049*25 — 63.8 (average of four best

readings)*

Remarks: Preparation has deep green and white
portions. The readings obtained were not uni-
form : 1371* 718 , 1727 , 1971, 1528*
white green

13207* Green stone chisel, said to be from Siberia, but pur-
chased in the City of Mexico; specific gravity,
2*9673 ; color, spinach-green venated with black;
no analysis ; nephrite.

Petrography : Con f u sed am ph ibol e fibres*

13216.

Hardness :

Revolutions Hardness

1432, = 55.4

974.33 = 37.7 average 3 softest parts

1889.66 = 73.2 “ 3 hard parts.

HemarJes : There are considerable variations in the
hardness in different parts of the surface of the
section. Readings, 1466, 803, 1171, 1835, 2368, 949.
This diversity of values in the same preparation
is more noticeable in the harder specimens, and is
probably due to an admixture of secondary ne-
phrite with some original jadeite.

Hatchet from New Caledonia ; specific gravity,
2.9311; percentage of silica, 52.60; color, dark
brown with veins and lines of lighter shades ;
normal nephrite.

Petrography : Uniform mixture of ampliibole fibres
in divergent clusters sometimes almost spherulitic,
without any special trace of original jadeite.

Hardness : Gave very diverse results in different
tests, and the cause of these differences does not
appear. The preparation is rather thin, and this
may affect results. In a first set of tests the
mineral showed extraordinary hardness, almost
equal to corundum ; in a later series it showed a
moderate hardness. It is possible that the first
results were influenced by some accident in the
manipulation of the instrument.

Revolutions Hardness

1st series — 20069,5 — 111 A
2nd “ — 2095 = 81.1

13086. Adze from New Zealand ; specific gravity, 3.2663;

percentage of silica, 54.19 ; color, pear-leaf green,
with lighter shades interspersed, and upon the
rougher surface brown oxidation.

Analysis: That of nephrite, with high magnesia
and lime.*

■\In regard to t-liis specimen see Pen field's Chemical Notes, on a later page.—
Note by Editor ,

JADE AS A MINERAL.

107

Petrography : Probably imparities account for tlie
abnormally high specific gravity; consists of
minute fibres and particles with banded struc-
ture ; small opaque spots, and crystals of a red-
dish-brown isotropic mineral, surrounded by a
white opaque substance — probably perovskite.
This would account for the added weight.

Hardness :

tic volutions Hardness

2544.5 = 98.5

Remarks : Readings, 1382, 2217, 2611, 3135, 3377.
Showed a singularly regular increase in hardness
across the preparation in one direction.

13030. Piece of natural jade from New Zealand ; specific
gravity, 3.0122 ; percentage of silica, 57.78; color,
dark rich green mottled with lighter tones ;
nephrite in composition, considerable iron, and
alkali strong.

Petrography : Laminated fibres of nephrite with
indications of crushing and dynamic metamor-
phism.

Hardness :

Revolutions Hardness
27544 = 106.7

Remarks; Readings across preparation at distance
of 0,8 mm. gave as follows : 2612, 4171, 2741,
704 960, 2458, 1790. Thus the readings differ
soft area

considerably, and a soft area is shown at one
point.

13266. Prehistoric Chinese celt; specific gravity, 2.9506;

percentage of silica, 52.93; color, dark brown of
various tints, grading to pale yellowish-brown and
mingled with shades of gray ; nephrite, excess-
ively high in magnesia — (25.49 per cent.).

Petrography : A mixture of jadeite and nephrite,
the latter derived from the former ; the mass is of
nephrite fibres that sometimes reach the size of

108

JADE AS A MINERAL.

compact crystals. A small amount of colorless
jadeite occurs in fan-shaped aggregates.

Hardness :

Revolutions Hardness

On portions that have taken polish, 3963. = 153.4
On portions that have not taken polish, 2050. = 79.4
General average, 2861.2 = 111.2
Remarks: Readings, 3700, 1317, 2542, 2122, 2219,
3710, 4419. It is probable that the polished
patches contain more jadeite, and the matt por-
tions nephrite ; variations are also to be expected
from differently oriented crystals. Note simi-
larity of values in 1st and 6th readings.

13215. Piece of boulder of jadeite from Burma ; specific
gravity, 3.2176 ; percentage of silica, 58.41 ; color,
white mingled with a bluish-green. Jadeite,
very high in alumina and soda, with only a little
over 1 per cent, each of magnesia and lime.
Petrography : Characteristic jadeite. Aggregate
of crystals, sometimes long prisms. A colorless
mineral acts as cement or matrix for the jadeite
crystals, which may be anal cite.

Hardness :

1 ie v o] u tio n s Hardness

General average, 2024.4 = 78.4

Homogeneous polished jadeite, 3353.5 = 129.9
Remarks : The preparation showed high polish ;
the two highest values, from which the last figure
above given was obtained, were clean small bor-
ings remote from any cleavage cracks, which are
present in most of the other borings. Readings,
1066, 1696, 1410, 1657, 2473, 1635, 4234.

131020 and D, Two fragments of jadeite slabs cut
from a boulder or weathered mass of Burmese
jadeite : specific gravity, 3*2578, and 3.2466,

respectively; percentage of silica, 57.54 (average
of three analyses of 13102(3); coarsely granular ;

JADE AS A MINERAL.

109

color, lavender, clouded with bright lettuce-green
and dead black.

Hardness :

Revolutions Hardness

3802 = 147.2

Remarks : Highly polished ; some portions

smoother, others dark and cleaved* The latter
give the lowest readings, 5508, 5901, 2185, 2380,
3343, 3498* Note the three sets of two like values
each* Does this mark separate crystals?

SUMMARY.

No.

Name

Specific

gravity

Silica

Hard-

ness

Color

Remarks

13251

Nephrite

2.9035

Soft

Gray

Burnt jade, malt

13210

2.9451

54.44

12,9

Green

A soft area, matt

132157

** 9

3.1223

55.92

24.2

I r reg u la r po i I si i an d
hardness

13214

2.9825

58.59

26.9

Some jadeite present

13228

3.0034

55 48

20.9

Hard and soft zones

13211

3.0138

57.65

29 0

A soft area

18268

2.9690

57.43

29.7

G ray-green

13207

2.9673

i i * t

55.4

Green

H. very variable

L3282R

2.9510

57.77

55.6

White

H. uniform

8005

Jadeite ?

3.3287

, + SB

63 8

Light green

H, not uniform

13216

Nephrite

2.9311

52 60

81.1

Brown

A first set of tests
gave extraordi-
nary H. = 777.4

13086

3.2663

54.19

98.5

Green

Impure

13030

8 0122

57.78

106.7

H. not uniform

13260

Mixed

2.9506

52.98

111.2

Brown

Irregular ; variable
hardness

13215

Jadeite

3.2176

58.41

129,9

White

Reading given is
pure jadeite; aver-
age is much low-
er = 78.4

13102C

Jadeite

Corundum

Topaz

Quartz

3.2466

57.49

147.2

1000.

236.8

59.1

Lavender,

greenAblack

Variable 11.; irregu-
lar polish

The tabulated results of these hardness tests on speci-
mens of jadeite and nephrite show clearly that in most
cases we have to do with mixtures. Tlie harder members
show great variations in a single specimen, indicating the
presence of secondary nephrite. It is clenr that the color

110

JADE AS A MINERAL.

and amount of silica present are quite independent of the
hardness. The specific gravity, also, shows great irregu-
larities, and is probably affected by impurities, largely in
the form of iron oxides. In general the specific gravity
increases with the hardness, and both vary directly with
the mineral composition ; both increase with the quantity
of original jadeite which persists in tile specimen, and
decrease as secondary nephrite increases. The actual mean
hardness of pure jadeite is probably not far from the value
given for No. 13215, viz., 129.9, referred to a Corundum
standard of 1000. From these tests it is not possible to
state accurately the mean hardness of nephrite, as a smooth
crystal surface of the mineral is not obtainable, and its
varying fibrous texture influences widely the results. The
values given for Nos. 13262R and 13207, namely about 55,
represent an approximate mean for nephrite, or less than
one-half the value given for jadeite. Thus jadeite as far
as these tests are concerned, stands nearly midway between
quartz and topaz, and nephrite is not quite as hard as
quartz. No. 3095 is labelled “ jadeite,” but no analysis or
petrographic description of this specimen was seen by the
writer, aiul while the specific gravity is high, we are inclined
to attribute this to impurities ; in any case, the hardness,
as determined by these tests, is that of nephrite.

SPECIFIC GRAVITY.

The density, or specific gravity, of jade offers a compara-
tively simple problem for study. In jadeite we have a
pyroxene, and in nephrite a member of the parallel amphib-
ole series. In general terms, other factors being equal, the
pyroxenes are higher in specific gravity than the amphib-
oles, and the difference is well beyond the range of experi-
mental errors. The mean density of nearly qKX) nephrites,
according to the figures given elsewhere, is 2.95+. That of
about 100 jadeites is 3.32+, and that of 6 ehloromelanites is
3.40+. Chloromelanite is essentially a jadeite containing
a larger proportion of iron compounds, and to that cause
mainly its higher specific gravity is due. The table which
is given lower down well shows the range of variation in
each group of jade.

The determination of the density or specific gravity of
every piece in the Collection that was not inseparably
mounted in wood or metal was kindly undertaken by
Professor William Hallock, of the Department of Physics
in Columbia University, New York ; and his account of his
methods, and of the special devices employed by him, is
here given in fall.

PROFESSOR HALLOCK’ S ACCOUNT OF IIIS WORK.

The determination of the density of a large number of
such objects as are brought together in this wonderful
Collection of Jades, and especially of large finely
sculptured pieces, presents two problems of novel interest :
first, the handling of a single piece weighing as much as
60 kilogrammes (132 pounds), several weighing from 5 to
15 kilogrammes (10 to 30 pounds) ; and secondly, a very
large number of smaller articles.

Apparently no one has heretofore attempted to deter-
mine, by immersion, the density of an object weighing

ill

112

JADE AS A MINERAL.

more than a few pounds, and indeed there lias been little
or no necessity for such a determi nation, since it is but
rarely that a heavier specimen is sufficiently homogeneous
to make its density of interest, and if it were, a piece
could be knocked off for examination ; but one cannot
knock off a piece of an absolutely unique carved jade
jardiniere.

For the examination of the heavy articles a Kohlbusch
bullion balance of 30 kilogrammes’ (1000 ounces) capacity
was used ; two other Kohlbusch balances for moderate load,
and a Becker analytical balance, were employed for the
smaller articles, as the case required. For the great
jardiniere with its mass of 60 kilogrammes, double the
load of our largest balance, a special device had to be
invented. It consisted of an auxiliary lever, or balance-
arm, having three parallel steel knife-edges, one under
each end and one on top about one-fourth the length from
one end* The knife-edge under the short end rested upon
a plate of glass mounted upon a wooden trestle, the knife-
edge under the long end of the bar rested upon a plate of
glass lying on rhe centre of the left-hand scale-pan. Upon
the third knife-edge rested a plate of glass under a yoke,
from which depended a hook upon which the object to be
weighed could be hung* By placing a 10-kil ©gramme
weight upon this hook it was possible to weigh the pres-
sure upon the scale-pan and thus determine accurately the
ratio of the lever arms. Hanging the jardiniere upon the
hook its weight in air was observed, and then placing
around it a tank of water it was possible to determine its
weight when immersed in water, these two weights
enabling one to calculate the density. The system is more
efficient and convenient when the vertical plane through
the balance beam and that through the auxiliary beam are
approximately at right, angles to each other

The other pieces of over one kilogramme mass were
placed upon the pan of a suitable balance and weighed,
one after another. Then replacing the ordinary pan of the
balance with a skeleton pan hanging upon a single fine wire
in a tank of water, the same articles were weighed in water.

JADE AS A MINERAL.

A great number of the articles under one kilogramme in
mass (over 500 ) were determined upon a special form of
balance constructed for the work. The left pan was
removed and in its stead was placed a two-story pan ; the
upper one hanging directly on the beam, and the lower one
hanging by a single line wire from a hook under the upper
pan. The lower pan was entirely submerged in a jar of
water, only the suspending wire passing through the
surface. Under these conditions the balance is counter-
poised and adjusted and is then ready for the day’s use*
It must, however, be readjusted from time to time, on
account of the varying temperature and level of the water.
This arrangement is very convenient and enables one to
determine densities very easily, rapidly, and withal
accurately. The object is placed in the upper pan and
weighed in air, then upon the lower pan and weighed in
water, and all is finished. In the latter part of the
investigation a similar two-story pan was fitted to all the
balances. Any difficulty arising from the capillary action
of the surface of water where the wire passes through is
readily eliminated by making small waves on the water ;
for example, by tapping on the tank, or by putting the tip
of the finger into the water while the weighing is going on,
Tn all cases the article was first wetted with alcohol,
then washed in an auxiliary tank of water, and then
placed on the lower pan in the weighing tank ; in this way
it was possible to ensure perfect wetting and the entire
elimination of all air films and bubbles. In certain special
cases where the article was slightly porous, it was weighed
in water several times after periods of soaking ranging
from a few hours to several days. The formula used to
calculate the results is the usual one to be found in any
reliable text-book :

J> = ^ {Q - A + A

in which D is the density or specific gravity,

M is the apparent weight of the body in air.

114

JADE AS A MINERAL.

MW*

W is the apparent loss in weight of the body
when suspended in water.

Q is the density of the water in which the object
is weighed.

L is the density of the air at the temperature and
barometric pressure existing during the
weighings. In practice it is sufficiently
accurate to assume L = 0.0012.

This formula is rigidly correct, and allows for the
buoyant effect of the air upon the weights as w r ell as upon
the object.

The object is weighed in air and this weight is M ; it is
then weighed while submerged in water whose tempera-
ture is noted ; this weight in water subtracted from the
weight in air gives W, the loss in weight due to the
buoyant effect of the water ; Q is obtained from a table
giving the density of water at different temperatures.

The specific gravity of over 1000 separate pieces, with a
density of 2.9 and over, was determined by Professor
Hallock. The figures given below are based on the first
598 of these, and may be accepted as typical of all.

Of the 598 specimens 6 were Chloromelanites
101 Jadeites

491 Nephrites

From 2.9 tip to 3.0 417 pieces averaged 2.9389 (Nephrite)

3.0 “ “ 3.2 74 “ “ 3.0159 (Nephrite)

3.2 “ “ 3.34 101 “ “ 3,3 152 (Jadeite)

3.34 upward (i “ “ 3.4039 (Chloromelanite)

Taking the nephrites all together the average is 2.9505 ;
the jadeites and chloromelanites together show an average
of 3.3202,

Jadeites.

6 Chloromelanites average 3.4039

43 pieces have a specific gravity of 3.33 +
27 3.32+

3.31 +
3.30 +
3.20+

(average 3.3351)
( “ 3.3252)

( “ 3.3182)

( “ 3.3041)

( “ 3.2527)

JADE AS A MINERAL*

115

Nephrites.

3 pieces have a

specific gravity of 3.10-[*

(average

3.1311)

3.004-

{

f t

3.0109)

2.99+

(

2.9045)

2.984-

(

2. 9843)

2.974*

(

2.9748)

2.964-

(

2.9042)

145

2.954-

(

2.9545)

2.944-

(

2.9461)

2.934-

(

2,9356)

2.924-

(

2.9256)

2.914-

(

2.9171)

2.904-

(

2.9035)

491 nephrites average 2.9505

When we study the individual specimens in detail, many
differences of density appear ; but in most cases they are
easily intelligible. In the less pure jadeites and in all the
nephrites we have to deal with salts of lime and magnesia,
which replace each other in varying proportions. An
increase in magnesia tends to raise density, and an increase
in lime to lower it. If, however, the lime in a specimen
represents a pyroxene, as in No. 18086, the density will be
higher than in an amphibole of similar composition. Iron
increases density very perceptibly ; water, on the other
hand, is a depressing agent. Again, an admixture of a
lighter mineral diminishes specific gravity; as in No.
13215, a mixture of jadeite and analcite of density 3.2176,
and in No. 13193, a jadeite and albite mixture of density
% 8345. In short, the specific gravity of a given sample
depends upon many factors, which often operate in differ-
ent directions ; but as we approach the typical minerals in
their greatest purity remarkably constant and uniform
values appear. The statistical table shows how close the
determinations run together, and indicates a remarkable
uniformity in this particular. In most cases density alone
will distinguish between jadeite and nephrite, but the first
species contaminated by a lighter impurity may even fall
below a nephrite which happens to be rich in iron.

SONOROUSNESS.

The resonant character of jade has long been known to
the Chinese, and regarded by them as a sure sign of the
genuineness of the material, when found united with trans-
Iticency and the proper color. “ Sounding- stones, 3 5 and
stones for polishing them, are mentioned in the earliest
historical records of China — twenty-three centuries B, C. —
as tribute to be furnished by certain provinces, after the
waters of the great Chinese flood had been regulated and
drained off by Yu the Great, and the empire resurveyed by
him.*

Confucius played on the “musical-stone,” and we find
frequent reference to it in the early classical literature of
the country. “ Full indeed is the heart of him who beats
the musical-stone like that 33 was the remark of a passing
peasant as Confucius— the sage, and disappointed reformer
—then a sojourner in the principality of Wei, sought
solace in the tinkle of the sounding-stone as he bewailed the

degeneracy of his times and the non-success of his teachings.

The Book of Poetry, a collection of odes ranging in date
from 1765 B. C. to the sixth century B. C., refers to the
“ musical-stone 53 in connection with the mouth-organ, the
flute, and the drum ; and in one of the odes whose theme
was ceremonial music, we are told that

* ' When the bells and drams sound in harmony
And the sounding-stones and flutes blend their notes,
Abundant blessing is sent down.”

These musical-stones were of various kinds :

(1) The “single-stone,” used “to receive the sound 15 at
the end of a line, as in chanting a ceremonial hymn.

*See the Shoo King , YoL IIL pt. l, p. 121, in Legge’s Chinese Classics {Lon-
don and Hongkong, 1865).

116

JADE AS A MIN Ell AL.

117

(2) A series of sixteen, all of the same size and shape, but

differing in thickness, forming the t4 stone chime/ 5
used in court and religious ceremonies.

(3) A series of twelve to twenty-four pieces carved into

fantastic shapes forms what is called the 4 1 singers’
chime,”

Jade was the material best adapted for musical uses, but
we are told in the books that other stones were also in use,
especially a kind of black calcareous stone which was
more easily worked than jade.*

The common form of the musical stones composing the
stone chime is that of an undecorated obtuse-angled car-
penter’s square with unequal arms, the longer — that
usually beat — measuring 1,8 feet and the shorter, 1.35 feet.

The Bishop Collection possesses several specimens of the
decorated kind. Two of these (Nos. 3255 and 13,141) and
a number of bowls and other objects, twenty-one in all,
were selected for a series of special sound-tests by Professor
Hallock of Columbia University, and his report, preceded
by a description of the specimens tested, is now given in
full

TWENTY “ONE JADE OBJECTS TESTED FOB SONOROUSNESS.

No, 3176 A graceful ju-i sceptre of beautifully compact and pure neph-
rite ; 16.4 cm, long ; 11 cm. broad.; and 1.3 cm. thick;
weight, 33.762 oz, ; specific gravity. 2.6620 : broad oval
head of four-lobed outline, carved in relief ; an incised
inscription on the stem.

Nos. 3098 A pair of plain rice-bowls of jadeite, 8 cm. in height and
3262 17.2 cm. in diameter ; specific gravity of No. 3068, 3.3376 ;

of No. 3262, 3.3364 ; weight of 3098, 14,873 oz , ; weight
of 3262, 12,617 oz.

No. 3091 A bowl of remarkably pure jadeite, carved in slight relief,
and known as a camphor bowl 17 because of its resem-
blance in color and texture to lump -camphor, showing
a translucent ground, thickly interspersed with clouds of
opaque white ; height 5.5 cm. ; diameter, 16.5 cm.; weight,
11.415 oz. ; specific gravity, 3.3374. It is so translucent in
parts that print in contact with it can be read through it,

» See Chinese Munir, by J. A. Van Aalst, published by the Imperial
Maritime Customs of China (Shanghai, 1884).

118

JADE AS A MINKKAL.

No* BIOS A small circular fluted dish of translucent, homogeneous and
compact nephrite, modelled after the conventional chrys-
anthemum-pattern ; 3.5 cm. in height, and 16.6 cm. in
diameter ; weight 7.591 oz., specific gravity, 2.9673.

No. 3103 A rice-bowl of remarkably fine-grained, translucent, homo-
geneous and compact nephrite, with a low foot cut in
scallop fashion, and a double band of vertical flutings con-
vex without and concave within. Height 5 cm. ; diameter
12 cm. ; weight 5.344 oz. ; specific gravity 2.9492.

No, 3092 A highly polished nephrite bowl of remarkably pure material,
and of almost egg-shell thinness, fluted into eight slightly
bulging lobes, and poised upon a circular rimmed foot,
and provided with handles carved in openwork with a spiral
ornament. Height, 5.7 cm., diameter, 13.0 cm.; weight,
6.204 oz. ; specific gravity, 2.9506.

No. 3101 A small teacup of exceedingly pure and transparent jadeite,
with a circular rim round the foot, and a slightly etched
design on the outside. Height, 4.5 cm. ; diameter, 10.5
cm.; weight, 3.152 oz. ; specific gravity, 3.3374.

No. 3106 A small polished bowl without decoration or carving except
an incised inscription underneath. The material is neph-
rite, translucent, compact, and remarkably homogeneous
in its texture. Height, 6.5 cm.; diameter, 14,3 cm.;
weight, 10.293 oz. ; specific gravity, 2.9809.

No. 13Q97D A small round saucer- like dish with three rings of flutings
surrounding a convex button -shaped middle engraved
with cross lines. The nephrite is translucent, very com-
pact and homogeneous, with inclusions of a black metallic
substance— probably chromite. Height, 3.5 cm. ; diameter,
15.9 cm. ; weight, 7.216 oz. ; specific gravity, 2.9915.

No. 13094 A round saucer-like dish, finely fluted in three concentric
rings encircling a round, nearly fiat, cross-hatched centre.
The nephrite is translucent, and very hornlike in its gen-
eral texture. Height, 3.8 cm. ; diameter, 16.1 cm. ; weight,
7.415 oz, ; specific gravity, 2.9968.

No. 3171 A large round dish of flattened saucer dike form, plain inside
but covered outside with a carved decoration in slight
relief. The nephrite is translucent, homogeneous and
compact, and shows a number of inclusions. Height,
2.5 cm., diameter, 27.6 cm. ; weight, 20.024 oz. ; specific
gravity, 2.9757.

No. 3129 A shallow undecorated bowl with flat base ; of translucent,
homogeneous, and compact Siberian nephrite. Height,
3.3 cm,, diameter 12.2 cm.; weight, 5.425 oz. : specific
gravity, 3.0154.

No. 3060 A large flaring bowl with circular rimmed foot, of the variety
of nephrite styled “ puddings tone jade.' 1 Height* 7.3 cm.;
diameter* 20,3 cm, ; weight* 17.448 oz. ; specific gravity,
3,0034.

No. 3023 A large round saucer-shaped dish* of conventional chrysan-
themum design, carved out of Lhe Smelting snow and
moss” variety of jadeite* so called from its general aspect.
It is carved outside with a double ring of flu tings* and
inside with six concentric rings of florets or petals.
Height* 4.7 cm.; diameter, 29,4cm.; weight* SO. 116 oz. ;
specific gravity, 3.3363.

No. 3090 A large undecorated bowl of nephrite, which shows a marked
horizontal stratification, as indicated by numerous inclu-
sions of a black metallic mineral—probably chromite.
Height, 9.2 cm., diameter* 16.8 cm.; weight, 12.429 oz. ;
specific gravity, 2,9499.

No. 3232 A jadeite rice- bowl of beautifully translucent, homogeneous
and compact texture* and so thin that print can be read
through It at a distance of 3 to 4 mm. The color is some-
what poetically but accurately described as suggesting
“bits of moss entangled in melting snow.” Height,
7.75 cm. ; diameter, 18.45 cm.; weight, 13.716 oz.; specific
gravity* 3.3385.

No. 3026 A large round saucer-shaped dish of very translucent,
homogeneous nephrite, carved in relief with scrolls on the
exterior, and polished to an exquisite thinness. Height,
6.2 cm. ; diameter, 28.5 cm.; weight* 19.627 oz. ; specific
gravity* 2.9939.

No. 3255 A “musical stone” in the form of a broad obtuse-angled
band* carved in relief, with total length of 22.2 cm., a
width of 10.8 cm.* and thickness of 0.6 cm.; weight, 9,811
oz.; specific gravity, 2.9787, Translucent and compact
nephrite of very sinewy structure.

No. 13141 A small carved “ musical stone,” having the outline of a
fish with bowed back, thus approaching the angular shape
of a regulation hanging musical-stone with unequal arms.
Total length, 24.0 cm.; breadth* 13.6 cm.; thickness* 0.9
cm.; weight* 12.432 oz. ; specific gravity, 3.3369. Trans-
lucent* homogeneous and compact jadeite.

No. 3075 A finely polished ruler or bar of translucent New Zealand
nephrite ; of square section, 31,7 cm.; long* and 1.25 cm.
thick ; weight* 5.008 oz. ; specific gravity* 3.0108,

TESTS ON THE SONOROUSNESS OF JADE.

BY PROFESSOR WILLIAM HALLOCK.

Owing to the high modulus of elasticity and the ex-
treme compactness of jade it possesses the property of
emitting a very clear tone when struck, and of maintain-
ing the tone for a comparatively long time. The tones are
of the pure quality, usually described as “ bell tones,” or
“as clear as silver/- or as “ silvery tones.” This is un-
doubtedly due to the fact that the tones are often simple
or “pure,” unaccompanied by any overtones; in other
cases where the tone is complex the relation of the partial
tones to each other is that of some of the principal har-
monious chords, as for example the major third-fifth-cliord
(e e g) y or the same diminished (c e jlat g ), etc.

Owing to a lack of perfect symmetry in either thickness
or quality of material, the jades, like bells in general, emit
a tone that varies in intensity rhythmically, giving rise to
what tlie physicist calls “beats,” and what is called
“ tremolo” in the organ and the voice, and “ throbbing” in
bells. If these are not too frequent, not more than eight
or ten per second, they lend a peculiar charm to the tones,
but when they become more rapid they produce a very
disagreeable roughness, or discord, in the tone.

Each of the bowls, plates, saucers, and similar articles
might be made the subject of an elaborate acoustic investi-
gation, but the score reproduced below will serve to give an
idea of the range and peculiarities of the tones represented.

In order to determine the rate of vibration, and possibly
the components of the tones, recourse was had to the
method of photographing a small gas flame which was
controlled by the motions of the particular bowl or object
under study.

Gas on its way to a small pointed-flame burner is made
to pass through a little box which is provided with a cover
of very thin india rubber. This cover rests against the
edge of the bowl, and thus the vibrations of the bowl are

120

JADE AS A MINERAL.

12 1

transferred to the gas, and thereby to the little flame. The
flame is photographed upon a plate that is moving side-
ways, so that each jump of the flame falls upon a different
part of the plate, and the resulting picture looks very
much like the teeth of a saw. A similar arrangement
resting against a standard electrically-driven tuning fork
gives another series of teeth, from which the rate of motion
of the plate is computed.

The quality of the tone depends upon the character of
the blow, and where it strikes the piece ; this is of course
due to development of tones higher than the fundamental,
either alone or along with the fundamental in varying
relative intensities. In these experiments the bowls were
struck with a soft wooden hammer, on their extreme edges,
the blow being as staccato as possible, the bowl being so
supported as not to interfere with its free vibration.

The following table gives the rate of vibration of the
fundamental tone, the combination of tones, if present,
the number of beats per second, and the duration of the
tone after a moderately strong blow.

Number

Position on treble clef

Fundamental

vibrations

per

second

Ratio
of tones

13097D

13094

3171

768

740

3129

3060

3023

3090

3232

3026

±M-£

between

456

1587

562

810

total 1344

total 1245

total 692

4:5

4:5:6

Beats
per second

Deration
of tone

too fast 3 seconds

too fast

1 seconds

too fast

3-4

3:4

2 seconds

seconds

3 seconds

5 seconds

8 seconds

seconds

THE CHEMICAL CONSTITUTION OF JADE.

BY F. W. CLARKE.

A study of the chemical constitution of jadeite and ne-
phrifce opens up a variety of interesting and curious ques-
tions, some of which have a bearing upon problems lying
beyond the limits of mineralogy. From Id dings 9 observa-
tions it seems probable that nephrite is sometimes derived
from pyroxenes by a process of alteration. He describes,
first, jadeites pure and simple ; then come jadeites contain-
ing traces of amphibole, then with much amphibole, then
nehprites containing residual jadeite, then nephrites with
the slightest possible remnants of jadeite, and finally ne-
phrite alone. The series is continuous, and in it no sharp
breaks appear. Now, as lias already been shown, the
pyroxenes have higher specific gravity than the correspond-
ing amphiboles. The change from one series to another
therefore, as a consequence of diminished density, implies
increase of volume; and this, in the interior of a rock
mass, involves the generation of pressure. In other words,
the production of the amphibole from the pyroxene takes
place under more than the normal pressure of the superin-
cumbent rocks, and it is possible that this fact may
account to some extent for the remarkable compactness
and tenacity of the product. Another consequence is
deducible from the phenomena — namely, that the molecu-
lar weight of the pyroxene is greater than that of the
amphibole ; the one molecule being probably a polymer of
the latter. Greater density implies greater complexity of
molecule, and the change from one to the other represents
a breaking down of the more complex into the simpler.
Ordinarily, but on quite superficial grounds, the amphibole
molecules have been regarded as heavier than the mole-
cules of pyroxene, but ail the valid evidence indicates that
the reverse proposition is true. To this subject I shall
recur later.

126

JADE AS A MINERAL.

Another class of problems is suggested by the impurities
in jade, or rather by its mixture with other minerals. For
example, No. 13193, a mask from Mexico, is shown by
Penfield and Iddings to be a mixture of jadeite and albite.
No such mixture has been observed among the Oriental
jades, and it therefore becomes more than probable that
the Mexican mineral is indigenous. To mineralogists this
will seem to be a very simple and obvious matter ; but the
fact that jadeite has not been reported as found at any
Mexican locality in situ bas led some anthropologists to
assume that the American material was derived from an
Asiatic source through some prehistoric channel of com-
munication. A fn!ler study study of jadeite from Mexico
and Central America might reveal still other differences,
and so dispose of the anthropological speculation forever.

Still another highly suggestive specimen is No. 13215,
from Burma, a mixture of jadeite and analcite with a
trace of diopside. Between jadeite, analcite, and the ferric
equivalent of jadeite, acmite, there are relations of deeidely
important character. The empirical formula? of the three
minerals are as follows:

That is, empirically analcite has the composition of jadeite
plus one molecule of water. Fused jadeite has the proper-
ties of fused analcite, and in Norway pseudomorphs of
analcite after acmite have been observed by Biogger. A
relationship between the species is evident ; but upon
closer scrutiny it becomes more complex than it at first
appears to be. Let us study the molecular volumes of the
three minerals, the molecular volume being the quotient
obtained upon dividing the molecular weight by the
specific gravity.

Acmite, Na Fe Si a O„

Jadeite, Na A1 Si s O,

Analcite, Na A1 Si.O, n„0

Molecular weight

Specific gravity
3.50
3.30
2.25

Molecular volume
66.2

61.5

98.2

Acmite, 231.8

Jadeite, 202.9

Analcite, 221.0

JADE AS A MINERAL.

127

Here we find acmite and jadeite near together, while
analcite gives a volume one-half greater. Between jadeite
and analcite there is a difference in volume of 36.7 units,
whereas the molecular volume of water alone, in the form
of ice, is only 19.6. That is, a molecule of jadeite plus a
molecule of ice would have a volume of only about 81.0
units, as against the 98.2 found. In short, a change from
jadeite to analcite, if such a change occurred, would
involve a very perceptible increase in volume over the sum
of the two component parts, and this indicates that the
simple molecular weights which we have taken are really
submultiples of the true values. The jadeite and acmite
molecules are polymers of the anhydrous analcite mole-
cule, and the alteration of one mineral into the other, as in
the change from pyroxene to amphibole, means a breaking
down from a higher molecular weight into a lower, and the
same breaking down occurs when jadeite is fused. Jadeite
itself is hardly, if at all, attacked by aqueous hydro-
chloric acid ; but after fusion that reagent decomposes it
readily. Analcite, whether natural or fused, is also easily
decomposed by hydrochloric acid ; and Lemberg has
shown that the two minerals after fusion have become
identical. This conclusion, together with that derived
from a comparative study of the pyroxenes and ampliib-
oles, bears directly upon the investigation of their chemical
structure.

Now, leaving out of account all pseudo-jades, such as
pectolite, fibrolite, or saussurite, and also neglecting all
mixtures of minerals other than pyroxenes or amphiboles
with jadeite or nephrite, let us consider the chemical
formula; of both species.

The simplest empirical formulae are as follows :

Pyroxenes : Jadeite, Na A1 Si a 0 6

: Acmite, Na Fe Si„0„

: Diopside, Ca Mg Si s 0 6

Acmite and diopside are both identified by Penfield as
isomorphously commingled with the normal jadeite.

128

JADE AS A MINERAL,

Amphiboles :

Trem elite,
Actinolite,
Glauoophane,
Riebeckite,

Ca Mg 9 Si n O B
Ca (Mg Pe) 3 Si 3 O e
Na A1 (Fe Mg) Si,O t
Na 2 Fe%IV Si 6 O lB

Normal nephrite approximates to tremolite or actinolite ;
but tlie glaucophane and riebeckite both appear in Pen-
field’s discussion of certain analyses.

In all of the foregoing molecules the ratio of silicon to
oxygen is 1 : 3, the ratio of a metasilicate* But a full
discussion of the jadeite analyses shows that this ratio is
sometimes exceeded and to an extent which cannot be
accounted for by the natural errors of experiment. This
excess probably indicates the presence of a molecule
represented by the generalized formula ALMg Si O c ; a
compound which is not known in the free state, but which
is well recognized in all the best theoretical interpretations
of the amphiboles and pyroxenes. In jade it is small in
amount, and for most purposes it may be neglected ; but
in augite, one of the most important pyroxenes, its pres*
ence seems to be very evident. In this connection it is
mentioned simply as one link in a chain of evidence as to
the nature of the substances under consideration.

It has already been shown that the pyroxene molecules
are more condensed than those of the amphibole group ;
and this may be more clearly brought out by a further
study of the molecular volumes. Taking the empirical
formula* as indicating for each mineral the minimum possi-
ble molecular weight, let us make the comparison here

suggested.

Mol. Wt.

Sp. Gr.

Mol, Vol.

Mean Volume

Jadeite,

202.9

3.30

01.5

61.5

Acmite,

231.8

3.50

66.2

Diopside,

217.1

3.20

67.8

The three pyroxenes run pretty well together ; part of
the difference being due to the fact that the ideally pure
molecules were not used for the specific gravity determina-
tions. Now let us pass on to the amphiboles.

JADE AS A MINERAL.

129

Mol, Wt.

Sp. Gr,

Tremolite,

418.5

2.94

Grlaucopliane,*

314.2

3.10

Riebeckite,

596.0

3.40

Mol, Vol. Mean Volume

142.4 71.2

101.4 07.6

175.3 70.1

The hist column gives the volume proportional to
Si^O fl ; a factor which occurs once in the pyroxenes, twice
in tremolite, one and a half times in glaucophane, and two
and a half times in the empirical riebeckite formula* This
column reduces all the minerals to a common denominator,
and renders a comparison possible* From it we see that
the pyroxenes and amphlboles are near each other in molec-
ular volume, but that the amphlboles tend to run per-
ceptibly higher* In other words, the aniphibole molecules
are less condensed, and therefore occupy more volume,
than the molecules oE pyroxene* Or, to state the result in
still another form, the pyroxenes, atom for atom, represent
the larger weight of matter in the unit volume of space*
The true molecular weights are multiples of the empirical
values, and those of the pyroxenes are the greater*

This view as to the molecular magnitudes under con-
sideration is diametrically opposed to the most commonly
accepted opinions. The latter take the simplest empirical
formula} alone, and as many am phi boles are representable
only by relatively high expressions, these are regarded as
indicating greater molecular weights. The supposed
simplicity of the pyroxenes, however, is apparent rather
than real, and disappears when all of the evidence is
considered in all of its bearings. A mineral cannot be
properly studied by itself alone; it must be interpreted
with relation to other species ; from some of which it may
be derived, or into which it may alter. These relations
must be expressed in its formula before the latter can be
regarded as fully established* An empirical formula
represents composition only ; a structural formula takes
into account molecular weight and relationship to other
compounds also. The one is simple, the other may be
complex; but that is best which best fulfils its purpose

Computed with Mg : Fe : : 2 : 1.

JADE AS A MINERAL.

and symbolizes the largest number of facts. Among the
various formulae which have been proposed for pyroxeues
and ainphiboles, what system best satisfies all the condi-
tions % That is the problem now to be considered.

According to the current and more commonly accepted
opinions, both groups of minerals are salts [of metasilicic
acid, and the simple empirical formulae are merely re-stated
in structural form. On this basis diopside becomes

0=Si

J O Ca — a

o Mg 0 /

>Si = 0

and the molecule AL Mg Si 0 8 is written

0=Si/

,0- — -Mg <X

s \

,0 A1

/ /

x 0 A! 0 /

These expressions indicate a simple relationship in form,
and by comminglings of the two types a large number of
pyroxenes are expressible. On a similar plan jadeite may
be given the structure

0=Si/

y 0 Na. <X

y/ \

/ >Si=0

Vo-

-A — 0 /

and here again the superficial resemblance is apparent.
For convenience these formal ps can be put in more con-
densed form, the metasilicate group

0 = Si

O-

?5?M , J®aasiES'*yrr.

JADE AS A MINERAL. 131

being written Si 0„ and then the expressions become

■O"

Si <>■ A1 ;

and

Si 0 -O4

a plan which is easier for the eye and which avoids repeti
tion of symbols.

On similar lines tremolite may be written also as a meta-
silicate

Si 0 5 -
1

SiO-

-M

-Si O a

Oa SiO.

or as a salt of the more complex acid H, Si, 0„. In the
latter case its structures is indicated thus :

Mg/ /si O Sj/°\M|

X 0 X

\o/

Mg/ ') Si 0 Si/ Nca

I N)/

the eight hydrogen atoms of the acid being replaced by the
four bivalent atoms of magnesium and calcium. These
expressions for tremolite are well enough so far as they go ;
but the other amphiboles, such asglaucophane and riebeck-
ite, are difficult to adjust with them. Partial evidence
may well be easier to interpret than complete evidence.

Going beyond the empirical formulae as a basis for study,
a clue to the condition of jadeite is found in the properties

JADE AS

MINERAL.

of another pyroxene, the mineral spodurnene. This
species, with jadeite and acmite, forms a well defined series
of compounds, whose empirical formulae are as follows :

Spodurnene, Li A1 Si 5 0 5
Jadeite, Na A1 SL 0,

Acmite, Na Fe Si a O fl

Spodurnene, then, resembles jadeite, except that it con-
tains lithium instead of sodium. In form and density the
species are closely allied, and the evidence obtained by the
study of one probably applies to all three. The molecular
magnitudes should be strictly similar.

It so happens that the alteration products of spodurnene
have been very thoroughly studied ; and their investiga-
tion has shed much light upon the character of the mineral.
It takes up soda quite easily, probably from percolating
waters, and becomes transformed into a mixture of albife
and eucryptite, which may be compared with the original
spodurnene thus :

Li A1 Si 2 0 6
Li A1 Si G 4
Na A1 Si ,0.

Spodurnene, Sp, Gr. 8.15
Eucryptite, u “ 2.67

Albite, “ 14 2.62

Both eucryptite and albite are ranch lower in density
than spodurnene, and their molecular complexity should
therefore, in all probability* be less. In order to effect
this change, the molecular weight must be at least double
that indicated by the empirical formula, and then it
become Li^ Al, Si 4 0 la or possibly greater. This expression
is a minimum. Eucryptite in turn alters into muscovite
mica, of which the simplest formula is Al 3 KEL Si s O„, and
to satisfy this condition the eucryptite formula must be
trebled. This consideration, taken in connection with the
albite and the spodurnene goes to show that the latter
mineral must be given a formula six times greater than the
original expression, and so it becomes Li e Al 6 Si ia O aa . The
formulae for jadeite and acmite must be treated in the same
way, and the final result for jadeite is

Na B AL SLCX,

JADE AS A MINERAL.

133

Does this represent a metasilicate, or is the metasilicate
ratio Si : O, only apparent? Just as spodumene alters
into albite and eucryptite, so jadeite should alter into
albite and nepheline (Na A1 SiO,),; and the splitting up
would be according to the equation

Na ( AI, Si ls O„ = Na, A!, Si,0„ + Na Al, Si a O„.

Jadeite Albite Nepheline

Albite is a derivative of trisilicic acid, H, Si s O„; and
neplioline is a salt of orthosilicic acid, H, SiO,. When
ortho- and tri-silicates are commingled, ratios like those of
the metasilicates are produced ; for H, SiO, + H, Si,O a =
H. Si,O ias and the latter as a mixture would exactly repre-
sent four molecules of metasilicic acid, H t SiO,. Such
mixtures are common among minerals, especially in the
feldspar, scapolite, and mica groups ; and the possibility
of a similar occurrence must be considered here. The
radicles SiO, and Si, O, seem to be equivalent to each other;
and on this supposition the formula Na, Ai„ Si„0„ may be
written structurally,

Na„

Si,O s -AI=Si O,.

AlEESi.O.-Al/ >A1 — Si O = A1

a - ,

s Si,O s =AI-Si O

Na„

Such a molecule as this could split directly into the two
molecules Al, Na, (Si,O h )„ (albite), and Al, Na, (SiO,),,
(nepheline) ; and it seems to satisfy all of the conditions
imposed by the different phases of the problem.

The unification of the other pyroxene formulae with this
new formula for jadeite now becomes a very simple matter.
Diopside, Mg Ca Si s O„ becomes Mg, Ca, Si s O S( ; and the
hypothetical compound Al, Mg SiO, is also quadrupled.
In diopside a mixed ortho- and tri-silicate is assumed ; and
in the other compounds we have a basic ortho-silicate con-
taining the well recognized univalent radicle Al O. Two

134

JADE AS A MINERAL.

A1 O groups are structurally equivalent to one atom of
calcium or magnesium. We thus have, for diopside

MgC

X SqO B -

and for the other molecule, the structure

(A1 0),
II

Si 0 -

Mg/'

\Si 0

(A1 0) a

-Mg-

■ Mg -

Ca
II

-Si 0 4 .

-Si o/
II

Ca:

-Mg-

{Al 0)
II

—Si 0

-Si 0;

<X )Mf

(A1 0),

All of the other pyroxenes are capable of similar interpre-
tations ; and thus the entire group is reduced to one
general type of constitution. No other mode of interpre-
tation hitherto proposed is equally general.

For the amphiboles, a similar treatment is possible ; and
they too can be regarded as mixed ortho- and tri-silicates ;
the apparent metasilicate ratios being apparent only.
Nephrite, it will be remembered, approximates to tremolite
and actinolite, but its molecule is less complex than that of
jadeite, and is formed by a lower degree of condensation.
In the amphiboles we also find admixtures of a compound
Al, Mg SiO„ which is not known by itself ; and this, as in
the case of the pyroxene is covered by the following
scheme :

(Al 0),

(Al O),

/Si CK
< /Mg

x si,o/

/SICK

Mg( >Mg

\3iO/

(Al 0),

Na,

Tremolite

(Mg Al, Si 0,),

Glaucophane

JADE AS A MINERAL*

135

Riebeckite and crocidolite are possibly the equivalents of
giaucophane, with ferric iron replacing aluminium, and
ferrous iron in place of magnesium. Rut their analyses
vary too widely to admit of any final conclusion upon this
point. The empirical formula used for riebeckite in the
preceding pages is merely the formula which is commonly
assumed ; but which does not fit the analytical data at all
closely*

To sum up : the formulae here developed represent the
known relations between the pyroxene and the amphiboles
in general, and between jadeite and nephrite in particular.
They cover the evidence so far as evidence exists ; but they
may not be final. A formula is merely a symbol for
expressing facts; and new facts nia}^ compel the abandon-
ment of one symbol for another of broader scope. Written
in structural form they bring evidence more clearly before
the eye, and they suggest investigations through which
more truth may become attainable* That function, the
function of suggestiveness, is one of their chief values.

THE CHEMICAL ANALYSES.

For the purposes of the investigation begun by Mr.
Bishop some three score chemical analyses were made
from typical specimens in his Collection. This analytic
work was carried out by Mr. Percy T. Walden, and later
by Dr. Harry W. Foote, both of the Sheffield Scientific
School at Yale University, under the direct supervision of
Mr. S, L. Penfield, Professor of Mineralogy at Yale* Of
the total number of analyses several were merely qualita-
tive, and others quantitative for the alkali metals only,
and these are not here recorded* The others are given
below in tabular form, and are considered in detail, with
descriptions of the several specimens, and reductions and
notes by Clarke and Penfield* The jadeites, in the order of
their purity come first; the nephrites similarly arranged
come next, and lastly, those specimens, only two in
number, which, though not strictly jade, are so closely con-
nected with it that they are allowed to stand.

136

JADE AS A MINE HAL.

The method of analysis used was that almost universally
adopted for silicate analyses of this character.

Water was determined by igniting about one gramme of
the air-dry material over a blast-lamp. The residue from
the water determination was fused with sodium carbonate,
extracted with water, acidified with hydrochloric acid,
evaporated to dryness, and tile silica filtered off. The
filtrate was again evaporated to remove the last trace of
silica, which was added to the first, and the whole ignited
to constant weight, and silica determined by loss on
evaporation with hydrofluoric acid.

Iron and alumina were precipitated in the filtrate from
the silica, and the precipitate was dissolved in nitric acid,
reprecipitated to ensure purity, and ignited to constant
weight over a blast-lamp. The residue of Fe„0, and
Al,O s was dissolved by means of a potassium bisulpliate
fusion, the fusion being soaked out in water containing
sulphuric acid. If a trace of silica were found at this point,
it was added to the silica previously obtained. The total
iron was then found by reducing the hot sulphate solution
with hydrogen sulphide and titrating with potassium per-
manganate.

The two filtrates from the iron and alumina precipitation
were concentrated and calcium was precipitated as oxalate.
When more than a very few per cent, was present it was
dissolved and reprecipitated, being weighed as oxide.

In the filtrate, magnesia was precipitated as ammonium
magnesium phosphate, and the first precipitate was always
dissolved and reprecipitated to ensure purity. It was
weighed as Mg.P,G T .

Ferrous iron was determined by titration with potassium
permanganate, after solution of the mineral in hydro-
fluoric acid in an atmosphere of Co,.

Alkalis were determined by a Smith fusion with calcium
carbonate and ammonium chloride, being separated from
each other by platinum solution.

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TABULAR STATEMENT OF ANALYSES OF JADE MADE FOR MR. HEBER R. BISHOP,
FROM SPECIMENS IN HIS COLLECTION.

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JADE AS A MINERAL.

TIIE SPECIMENS ANALYZED*

132Q6B* Fragment of an ornamental medallion from China*
Specific gravity 3.3303; hardness* 7 ; translucent
Burmese jadeite, with remarkably perfect crystalline
structure. Color, “ Melting snow. 5 ’

Microstructure : This is the coarsest-grained variety
examined by Iddings* It is an aggregate of colorless
crystals that can be seen without the aid of a lens,
the largest being 3 mm. long. The size of the crystals
varies greatly, from that just mentioned to micro-
scopic dimensions, all mingled without definite
arrangement or any suggestion of a porphyritic
structure. The substance of the jadeite is very pure
and free from inclusions in most crystals. A few
show specks that seem to be incipient decomposition.
These are not twinned.

The analysis, with reduction by Clarke, is as
follows :

Jadeite

Hr IT (!

Silica, 57.60

57.26

.34

Alumina, 25,75

24.50

.14

Magnesia, ,13

Lime, ,58

.07

Soda, 13,31

13.31

Potash, 2.20

Water, .25

2.20

99.82

97.37

.55

Jadeite,

07.27

R a *' IT (SiOsh,

.55

97.82

Alumina

l.ir

Magnesia,

Lime,

.13

.51

- unaccounted for*

Water,

.25

$9,82

13323. Fragmemt of raw jade from Tibet* Specific gravity,
3.3359 ; hardness?. ; of translucent, homogeneous and

140

JADE AS A MINERAL,

compact material with a decided granular crystalline
structure. Color , lavender, with opaque white snow-
like patches.

Micro structure : Almost pure jadeite, almost color-
less in thin section, with a whitish tinge. It is tra-
versed by numerous irregular cracks as though the
rock had been subjected to crushing. There are minute
colorless veins crossing the section independent of the
cracks. They are made up of larger crystals of the
same mineral as the mass. The whole is an aggrega-
tion of irregularly-shaped crystals of jadeite, the
majority of which are very minute and do not exhibit
crystallographic outlines. Scattered through it are
microscopically small opaque specks, usually with
irregular outline, whose exact character cannot be
determined. They are probably magnetite. There
are also small crystals of a colorless mineral with
index of refraction slightly higher than that of the
surrounding jadeite, and having a double refraction
about half as great as that of jadeite. It appears to
be either a tetragonal or orthorhombic mineral hav-
ing the axis of greatest elasticity parallel to the
length of the prism. It is so filled with inclusions of
jadeite that good interference figures could not be
obtained, and hence its uniaxial or biaxial character
could not be determined. It is therefore not possible
to state its mineral character. The most probable
assumption is that it is andalusite. The quantity is
not large, so that its presence does not materially
affect the diameter of the rock.

The analysis, with reduction by Clarke, is as follows :

Jadeite

rr 3 rr (Sio*)*

Silica,

58.80

56.85

1.95

Alumina,

25,37

24,16

.83

Ferric oxide,

,33

Magnesia,

.25

Lime,

.58

.11

Soda,

14.65

Potash,

.05

Water,

.14

100.17

0.171

3.14

JADE AS A MINERAL.

141

Jadeite, 95- 71

IT a ir (Si0 3 )i> 3.14

98.85

Alumina, ,38 1

Ferric oxide, .33 j , , ,

Tt 1 } unaccounted for.

Lime, ,47 i

Water, .14 J

100.17

13243. Fragment of jadeite pendant from China. Specific
gravity 3.3287 ; hardness, 7 ; wholly jadeite, evidently
from Burma, with no other mineral. The crystals
are all quite small, grading from 0.8 mm. to micro-
scopic. There is a slight central clouding in some
crystals and a small amount of crushing. Color,
white with emerald-green in part.

The analysis, with reduction by Clarke, is as

follows :

Jadeite

rr, ir (Sio 3 )

Silica, 58.69

54.59

3.06

Alumina, 25,56

23.20

1.30

Magnesia, .11

.11

Lime, *58

Soda, 13.09

13,09

,58

Potash, 1.54

Water, .17

1,54

99.74

92.42

5.05

Jadeite, 92.42

H i K (SiO s )*> 5.05

97.47

Excess silica* 1.04 1

ts alumina, 1.06 J-

unaccounted for.

“ water, .17 1

99.74

3127. Vase in the form of blossoming plum-tree trunk,
China. Specific gravity, 3.3316 ; hardness , 7 ; of

142

JADE AS A MINERAL.

translucent, homogeneous, and compact material,
remarkable for its color. Color, various shades of
blue, with brown (almost amber-colored) staining in
parts.

Micro structure : an aggregate of lath-shaped jadeite
crystals with jagged outline and somewhat parallel
arrangement. In places they are very miimte and
carry longer crystals of jadeite with no optical dis-
tinction ; or, in other words, they give no evidence of
having been strained. Part of the rock, however,
shows signs of having been crushed and dragged.
There is a little colorless mineral supposed to be
albite.

The analysis,

with

reduction by

Clarke, is

follows :

Jadeite

I r , R (SiOah

Silica,

58.93

54.10

4.83

A1 umimt,

25,39

22.99

2.05

Titanic oxide,

,15

Manganous oxide,

trace

Feme oxide,

trace

Ferrous oxide,

trace

Magnesia,

.39

.29

Lime,

-72

.72

Soda,

12.90

Potash,

1.63

Water,

.23

100.24

91.62

7.89

Normal jadeite,

91.62

Pseudo- “

7.89

99.51

Excess alumina,

.50

)

water,

.23

* unaccounted for.

100.24

13336. * Fragment of boulder from Burma. Specific
gravity, 3.3122 ; hardness, 7 ; homogeneous and
compact. Color , greenish blue-white, with dark

green veinings.

JADE AS A MINERAL.

Microstructure : a comparatively coarse-grained
aggregation of jadeite crystals, the larger of which are
O.G mm. in diameter. The rock is colorless in thin
section, with small spots of clouded material. It is
almost wholly jadeite, the clouded matter being inde-
terminable and presumably the beginnings of decom-
position. The grains or aiihedrons of jadeite are
irregular and of various sizes. In some cases the
prismatic cleavage is distinct. Areas that appear as
one crystal often prove to be compounded of many
individuals when seen between crossed nieols. The
variations in grain and the curving of some cleavage
lines, the mottling of the larger crystals when viewed
between crossed nicols indicating strains and the first
stages of granulation, together with the streaked
arrangement of the smaller aiihedrons, prove that the
rock had been subjected to forces that crushed it to
some extent. In places there are patches of a color-
less mineral with lower index of refraction than that
of jadeite, and with the double refraction and poly-
synthetic twinning of plagioclase feldspar. It acts as
a matrix in which small prisms of jadeite lie at all
positions, and against which the jadeite is automor-
pliic. It exhibits no signs of alteration, whether of
decomposition or of crushing. These facts point to
its being of later origin than the dynamic metamorph-
ism of the rock. But the areas of feldspar are so
small that the evidence is not conclusive, and they
may possibly have been formed when the jadeite
crystallized, They certainly formed after the adjacent
and enclosed jadeite crystallized. The chemical
analysis given below shows that the mass is slightly
higher in silica than if it consisted wholly of
pyroxene. And a calculation of the possible mineral
constituents based on a knowledge of the presence of
feldspar shows that the material analyzed probably
consisted of

Jadeite,
Diopside,
R", K SiO c
A 1 bite,
AnortMte,

66.15 per cent, by weight,
6.17 11 '* l<

205 *■ <* “

4.89 “ " “

.56 14 " "

144

JADE AS A MINERAL.

The feldspar would have the composition Ab„ An t , that
is, oligoelase-albite.

The analysis by Foote, with reduction by Clarke, is as
follows :

Jadeite

R 'a Ca SiOe

Nephrite

Silica,

58.58

53.43

.79

4.34

Alumina,

28-71

22.70

1,01

Ferric oxide,

.51

Ferrous 11

.24

Magnesia,

1.35

Lime,

1.87

.73

.94

Soda,

13.80

Water,

.30

100.16

80.93

3.04

7.07

Jadeite,

89.92

R"a Ca SiO s , 3.04

Nephrite,

7,07

Or is it a pyroxene near

Excess silica, .13

diopside ?

100.16

13102C. Slab of crude jade from Upper Burma. Specific
gravity, 3.2578 ; hardness, 7; of subtranslucent
material, coarsely granular in structure, with
apparent radiated reflections from 1 to 4 mm. in
diameter, an admirable example of unaltered origi-
nal pyroxene mineral. Color , lavender, clouded
with bright lettuce-green and dead black.

Three analyses by Walden , with reduction by Pen-
field of the analysis of the mixture, are as follows :

Lavender

Green

Mixture

Silicia,

57-79

57.49

57.45

Alumina,

21.40

21.56

21.94

Ferric oxide,

.80

1.05

,91

Ferrous oxide,

, « , , ,

Manganous oxide,

trace

Magnesia,

4.72

4.79

3.96

Lime,

3,06

2.90

3.10

Soda,

12.36

11,98

12.13

Potash,

Water,

.76

.45

.79

100.80

100.23

100.28

JADE AS

A MINERAL,

145

Diopskle

Jadeite

Jadeite Cal.

Jadeite

Cn Mg (SiO,), Na AI (SiO,),

to 100 $

Theory

' I:

Silica,

7.80

49.05

57.88

59.40

Alumina,

21.94

26.24

25.25

Ferric oxide,

.91

Magnesia,

3.00

.96

Lime,

3.10

Soda,

12.13

15.88

15.35

Potash,

Loss on ignition,

13.90

85,59

100.00

13255. Plate, from China.

Specific

gravity, 3.3373

; hard-

ness, 7;

of translucent, very compact, and homo-

ge neons material in which by the aid of a pocket
lens the crystals can be clearly seen ; remarkably
perfect and sharply resonant. Color, whitish, with
green patches.

Microstructure: wholly jadeite without other
mineral, \vith a slight central clouding in some
crystals, and a small amount of crushing. The
crystals are all quite small.

The analysis, with reduction by Clarke, is as
follows :

Jadeite

ir s ir (SiOs)*

Silica,

58.40

49.63

6.21

Alumina,

27,05

21.09

2.64

Magnesia,

.57

Lime,

.65

Soda,

11.37

Potash,

2.20

Water,

.18

100.42

84.29

10,07

Normal

jadeite,

84.29

Pseudo-

i E

10.07

94.36

Excess

alumina,

3.331

silica,

2.56 ^ unaccounted for.

water,

-18 J

100.42

146

JADE AS A MINERAL.

3248. Bowl , from China. Specific gravity, 3.3394 ; hard-
ness, 7 ; of translucent, homogeneous, coarsely
crystalline material. Color , sea-green, with opaque
frosted aspect.

Microstructure : Many large crystals of jadeite
up to 3 mm. in diameter, undulatory extinction is
pronounced, and the rock has evidently been sub-
jected to great strains. Many of the jadeite aggre-
gates are arranged in optical fields often resembling
sections of mica. Fine fragments and fibres of

jadeite occur in veins and act as a cement.

The analysis,

with reduction by

Clarke,

follows :

Jadeite R"i

W <SiO,)i

Silica,

58.48

47,85

10.12

Alumina,

23.57

20,34

3,23

Ferric oxide.

1.68

Magnesia,

1.33

.53

Lime*

1.62

Soda,

10.33

10,33

Potash,

3,09

3.09 1

Water,

.16

100.2G

81.61

17.18

Jadeite,

81.61

R% IT (Si Os)*

, 17,18

98,79

Magnesia.

.801

Silica,

unaccounted for.

Water,

■16 j

100.126

K is regarded as replacing Na in jadeite. The other molecule is a jadeite-
acmite with lime ancl magnesia in place of alkalies. Fenfield includes it with
the jadeite, as is proper.

13195. Small saucer-shaped dish ? from China. Specific
gravity, 3.3381; hardness, 7 ; of translucent, homo-
geneous, and compact material. Color, white,
blended with emerald-green.

Micro structure : an aggregate of jadeite crystals
all of which are quite small, grading to microscopic,

JADE AS A MINERAL.

147

the longest being about 0,8 mm. The lamination is
due to the nearly parallel arrangement of some
prisms, and to the alternation of layers of coarser
and finer grains. The rock is very fresh and pure
without other constituent minerals, and there is
little or no sign of decomposition or alteration by
dynamic forces.

The analysis, with reduction by Clarke, is as

follows :

Jadeite

IT* IT (Si0 3 ) 4

Silica,

50,02

46.80

12.22

Alumina,-

24,88

10.89

4.99

Ferric oxide.

1.28

,33

Ferrous oxide.

,28

.02

Manganous oxide,

.19

Magnesia,

1,10

L1G

Lime,

1.15

1,15

Soda,

11.31

11.21

Potash,

1.34

Water,

.07

100.47

79.24

20,00

Normal jadeite,

79,24

Pseudo-

( r

20.00

99.24

Ferric oxide.

.901

Ferrous 1

.26 y unaccounted for.

Water,

,07 J

100,47

13242. Celt, from Mexico, Specific gravity, 3.3034 ; hard-
ness, 7; typical chloromelanite, showing on cut
edges a very compact crystalline structure with
occasional white markings and veinings which are
also visible on the weathered surface. At the lower
end there is a cavity 17 mm. long by 6 in width, and
more than a dozen smaller ones in various parts,
filled with a hard, compact white substance which
effervesces readily on the application of hydro-
chloric acid, proving it to be calcite which deposited
after the object had been lost or buried in some

148

JADE AS A MINERAL*

limestone strata, or a limestone cave* Color , black
with a greenish tint.

Micro structure : an aggregate of small jadeite
crystals with a few larger ones of irregular shape,
parts of some of them being pale-green. The mass
is streaked with greenish dark-colored specks which
appear under the microscope as opaque particles
crowded together in the larger jadeite crystals as
products of alteration. There are also rather numer-
ous patches of a colorless undeterminable mineral,
and small somewhat lenticular bluish-green crystals
which suggest glaucophane.

The analysis, with reduction by Fentield, is as
follows :

rs 0,

B 2

3 £

'm — K

o 5^

£ §

,£ *C.

5 «

33 2-

*1 -

5 o

1Z V

«s

^ fee

ITS <

l-j ^

Silica,

56.09

4.98

6.73

44.99

57 85

59*40

Alumina,

20.45

20.46

26.31

25*25

Ferric oxide,

4.49

Ferrous oxide,

*75

Magnesia,

1,64

1*28

*36

Lime,

3.28

2.29

.99

Soda*

11.65

1*74

9.91

15*84

15 35

Potash,

1*15

1.15

Loss on ignition,

*48

100*59

9*30

12.95

77.86

100.00

100*00

13249. Hatchet from the lake-dwellings of Neufchatel,
Switzerland. Specific gravity, 3*3745 ; hardness, 7;
opaque, very compact in texture, with a weathered
spot at the upper end* Color, dark green, almost
black.

Microstructure : very small irregularly shaped
crystals or grains of colorless jadeite and also pale
green amphibole, with a crudely parallel orienta-
tion, producing a lamination or fibration of the

JADE AS A MINERAL.

149

mass. Tiiis is further emphasized by streaks of
minute grains of an almost colorless mineral with
high index of refraction, and with the character-
istics of zircon. There is also a little iron oxide,
probably magnetite in irregularly shaped grains.
The analysis, with reduction by Clarke, is as

follows :

Jadeite

Fe", Ca SiO B

Magnetite

Neph rite

Silica,

56,08

44.95

1.04

8 91

Alumina,

10,05

19.05

Ferric oxide,

are

2.82

.94

Ferrous oxide.

2.26

.43

1.84

Magnesia,

2.08

2,08

Lime,

4.04

.96

3.98

Soda,

11.61

11 .61

Potash,

,26

Water,

,18

100.22

75,61

4.82

1 .36

16.81

Jadeite,

75,61

Fe Ca SiOrt,

4,82

Magnetite ?

1.36 ?

Nephrite,

16.81

98-60

Silica,

1.18]

Potash,

.26 f

unaccounted for.

Water,

■18 J

100.22

13215. Fragment of boulder from Burma, Specific gravity,
3,2176 ; hardness, 7.; of coarsely granular structure.
On broken surfaces the outlines of many of the
pyroxene crystals are clearly visible. On cut sur-
faces the reflections resemble the frosted appearance
of galvanized iron. Color , white, with bluish-
green.

Microstructure : an aggregation of irregularly
shaped crystals of nearly colorless jadeite, with
many cracks which follow the outlines of the crys-
tals, the prismatic cleavage, and a transverse part-
ing, probably basal. In places the pyroxene crys-

150

JADE AS A MINERAL.

tals become long prisms and lie at all angles, some-
times grouped in fan-like aggregation-bundles. In
several places they lie embedded in a colorless
mineral which acts as a matrix for the pyroxene
crystals. In these they have sharply defined crys-
tal forms. This colorless matrix appears to consist
of relatively large individuals, not an aggregate of
small ones. It has a low index of refraction, and
very low double refraction and shows some poly-
synthetic lamellte. Its exact nature is not deter-
minable by optical means alone. It is possibly
analcite. The analysis, with reduction by Penfield,
is as follows :

■fli rt
O S(

«33

“ w

ft
® *
'n cj
* J3

Silica,

58,41

1.50

15.84

41.07

58.87

59.40

Alumina,

24.64

6.73

17.91

30.05

25.25

Ferric oxide,

♦ 67

.67

Magnesia,

1.24

.52

,72

Lime,

L43

.67

.76

Soda,

12*76

4.09

8 67

15.58

15. 35

Potash,

♦58

.58

Loss on Ignition,

1,19

1.19

100.92

2,69

27.85

70.38

100-00

100.00

13267. Fragment of boulder from Burma. Specific
gravity, 3. 1223 ; hardness, 7, ; of snbtranslucent
material, with a crystalline, interwoven structure
of interlacing patches of an intense emerald -green
and an almost white mineral. Color , lettuce-green.

Microstructure: The prisms are acicular and
fibrous. There is more of ail approach to streaked
or parallel fibrous structure, though the needles
cross one another at various angles. The ampliib-
ole has a pale green color in thin section, the

JADE AS

MINERAL,

crystals being pleocliroic, yellowish-green parallel
to the prism axis and bluish-green at nearly right
angles. It is a mixture of jadeite and amphibole
in the proportion of three to two, and consists of
very minute fibres with a preponderating parallel
arrangement, producing a more or less pronounced
fibration or lamination in the rock.

The analysis by Foote, with reduction by Clarke,
gave the following results :

Calculated

58.89

Jude ite Acmite Amphibole

Reduced

Silica,

57.36

33.16 2,05 22,15

58.74

Alumina,

14.01

Ferric oxide.

1.37

1,37

Ferrous 11

.70

.701

Magnesia,

11.07

11.07 [

34.18

Lime,

L01

1.91 j

Soda,

11.32

8.51 .57 2.24 )

6-86

Potash,

.53

.53 j

Water,

1.55

.10

.27

09.91

55.68 3.09 88.79

100.00

Amphibole, 38.79

Jadeite, 55.68

Acmite, 3.09

Excess water, 1.45

09.91

moo

The amphibole is unusual. In the reduced column Fe and Ca are reduced
to terms of Mg, and K to Na> then all to 100 per cent. The calculated
column is computed for Na->>Ig T (SiOa) fl
This amphibole may be new.

13193. MG.sk, from Mexico. Specific gravity, 2.8320;
hardness, 7,; subtraoslucent, fairly compact granu-
lar material.

Color , light emerald-green and gray, with seams
of gray- brown, and light green on the back.

Microstructure : irregularly shaped crystals of
jadeite scattered through albite, which forms
interlocking crystals of variable size, some indi-
viduals inclosing a number of crystals of jadeite.
The albite is pure and fresh and exhibts a charac-

152

JADE AS A MINERAL.

teristic cleavage and optical properties. Twinning
in polysynthetic lamellae is developed to only a
limited extent. Many crystals are not twinned.
Apparently the jadeite and albite crystallized at
the same time.

The analysis, with redaction by Penfield, is as
follows :

— ©

£o

3 °*

-Is

-is

Theoretical comparison of

mixture of

Nephrite Jadeite

Albite

Silica,

63.47

2,20

28. 80

32.47

2.17 28.87

32.48

Alumina,

20,76

11.53

9.23

12.45

9.20

Ferric oxide,

1.27

1,27

Magnesia,

1.11

1.08

Lime,

1*16

.50

,66

.50

Soda,

11.98

6.63

5. 3o

7.46

5.81

Potash,

,34

Water,

,36

100.45

3,81

48.89

47.39

3.75 48.76

47.49

The anal} T sis indicates the presence of a little nephrite*

13200. Part of a ICuei or Sceptre, from China, Specific
gravity, 2,9430; hardness, 6.5; a tomb piece.
Colo?\ light grayish-yellow with a rich brown dead
oak-leaf coloring due to oxidation while buried in
the ground, the general effect reminding one of a
stained meerschaum pipe.

Microstructure; consists of minutely fibrous
amphibole, and considerable compact am phi bole in
irregularly-shaped crystals, in clusters and streaks
through the rock. There are also remnants of
small jadeite crystals in aggregations and streaks
and sometimes in spherulitic clusters.

The analysis, with reduction by Clarke, is as
follows :

JADE AS

MINERAL

Silica,

57 37

Doubtful

.58

Nephrite

56/79

Alumina,

1.03

Iron oxides,

,78

Magnesia,

23,96

Litne,

13.03

13,03

Alkalies,

undet

Water,

3.63

1,57

2.06

99.80

3.96

95.84

Iddiags* work shows that the material was once jadeite, but is mainly
altered to amphibole. The alumina corresponds to about 4 per cent, jadeite.

13334, Fragment of crude nephrite from Jade Mountain,
Alaska* Specific gravity, 2,9487; hardness, 5,5;
structure strongly foliated, and in part fine-grained,
compact, and tenacious. One end is altered to a
white almost steatitic mass with a hardness of
not over 2, suggesting weathering or fire-mining*
Color, sage-green,

Microitructure : an aggregation of extremely fine
fibres that lie parallel to one another and have been
bent into contorted and crenelated bands* There
is some clouding of the material which is white by
incident light, and yellowish by transmitted light.
In places the fibres are less crinkled and the sub-
stance is nearly transparent, and the double
refractions are more uniform as shown by the
interference colors, but there is some mottling*
The thin section cut across the fibres shows less
crinkling and a less fibrous texture, and indicates
that the fibres are flattened or bladed. Very free
from inclusions of other minerals.

The chemical analysis by Foote, and reduction
by Clarke gave £ he following :

Jadeite

R 'a CaSiO e

Nephrite

Silica,

57.09

.81

.41

55.87

Alumina,

,53

.34

.19

Ferric oxide,

.81

Ferrous

3 98

3,98

Magnesia,

22.28

22,28

Lime,

11,75

.38

11,37

Soda,

,21

Water,

3.57

2.08

100,23

1.36

1,79

95.58

100.32

Nephrite -- H h Ca. (MgFe)is(8iO s )i»

13335. Crude Fragment from the Jade Mountain, Alaska,
Specific gravity, 2.9004 ; hardness, 6.5. The speci-
men shows contact markings with slight traces of
slick ensides, is closely foliated in part, enclosing
rounded protuberant masses in the foliation. It is
stained more or less with small brownish spots
which are probably the alteration of some included
mineral. Color, olive-green ; grayish-green on
fractured surfaces.

Micro structure : confused fibres of amphibole,
extremely minute, crinkled and contorted in some
places, in streaks of parallel fibres in others. The
fibres are so minute that they overlie one another
in the thin section and produce aggregate polariz-
ations between crossed nicols. It is traversed by
short crooked cracks containing dark coloring
matter. The nephrite is stained yellow with
streaks of brown.

The chemical analysis by Foote, with reduction
by Clarke, is as follows :

Jadeite

ir 3 Ca SiO e

Nephrite

Silica,

57.02

.85

.58

55 59

Alumina,

,70

.36

.34

Ferric oxide,

1.04

1,04

Ferrous 1 1

4.33

Magnesia,

21.56

Lime,

12 63

.54

12.09

Soda,

,22

.22

Water,

3.01

2.00

100.51

1.43

2.50

95.57

100.31

13122. Knife from British Columbia. Specific gravity,
2.9987; hardness, 6.5; of translucent and very
compact material, showing, where sawn, a very
characteristic splintery structure. Color , spinach*
green, black venation.

Microstructure: a confused aggregation of am-
phibole fibres, with occasional longer streaks of
nearly parallel fibres, and a faint suggestion of
patches derived from previous pyroxene.

The analysis, with reduction by Clarke, is as
follows :

Jadeite

AU Ca SiO*

Nephrite

Silica,

56.70

*55

1.05

55.10

Alumina,

2.01

1.78

Ferric oxide,

Ferrous ■*

5.00

5.09

Magnesia,

21,91

31,91

Lime,

12.12

.98

11.14

Soda,

,14

Water,

2.56

1,81

100.53

*92

8.81

95.05

Nephrite.

95.05

Jadeite,

,93

A1, Ca SiO,

3,81

Excess water,

,75

100.53

Nephrite = II* Ca* (MgFeJufSiOa)!*

13205. Thumb-ring from China. Specific gravity, 2-9896 ;
hardness, 6,5 ; horny, compact, with scattered
fragmentary highly striated crystals of colorless
jadeite. Color , olive-gray, clouded and veined
with brown and black.

The analysis, with reduction by Clarke, is as
follows :

156 JADE AS A MINERAL.

Jadeite

Nephrite

Silica,

57.02

2.47

54,55

Alumina,

1.05

Ferric oxide, |

1.10

.55 ?

Ferrous ‘ 1 f

.50 ?

Magnesia,

23.01

23 01

Lime,

14.77

Alkalies,

undet Na 3 0

.63?

Water,

3.00

.95

99.95

415

94,33

Nephrite,

94.33

Jadeite,

4.15

Excess water,

2,03

100.53

Jadeite is assumed to be proportional to alumina, and tlie undetermined soda
is calculated to correspond. Ferrous and ferric oxide not separated by tbe
analyst.

13262E. Fragment of oblong medallion from China. Spe-
cific gravity, 2.9546 ; hardness, 6.5 ; of very pure,
translucent, and compact material, with splintery
fracture. Color , sage-green.

Microstructure: There is a faint suggestion of
patches derived from a previous pyroxene, but the
amphibole fibres are in confused aggregation with
occasional longer streaks of nearly pai*allel fibres.

The analysis, with reduction by Clarke, is as
follows :

Jadeite?

H " j Ca SiOe

Nephrite

Silica,

57.38

1.28

.81

55.29

Alumina,

.83

*54

.29

Ferric oxide,

1.71

Magnesia,

23.37

33.37

Lime,

13.14

.76

13.36

Soda,

,33

.33

Water,

3,51

1.79

100.27

2.15

3.57

92.83

Nephrite,

92.83

Jadeite?

2.15

ir 2 Ca SiO flT

3.57

98.55

Excess water,

1.73

100.27

JADE AS A MINERAL*

3185. Little figure from China* Specific gravity, 2.9490 ;
hardness, 6.5; of translucent, homogeneous, and
compact material, in which are seen by transmitted
light some sub translucent inclusions, evidently
another form of nephrite. Color , yellow, with a
greenish tint.

follows :

□ Ca SiOa

Serpentine

Nephrite

Silica,

54.44

.62

,84

52.98

Alumina.

.33

.82

Ferric oxide,

.38

.88

1 fi

Ferrous u

.34

Magnesia,

25,88

.84

25.04

Lime,

13.70

.58

13.12

Soda.

.70

Potash,

,54

.54

Water,

3,48

.25

100 28

2.40

1.93

93.72

Nephrite*

92.72

Serpentine,

1.93

The low silica indicates serpentine.

R r ' s Ca SiO

6 , 2.40

Without it bases are in excess of silica.

Excess water, 3.23

100.38

3121. Vase from China* Specific gravity, 2.9513; hardness,
6.5; of translucent, compact material, the sinewy
texture of which is well shown by transmitted light.
Color, white, with very light greenish tint*

The analysis, with reduction by Clarke, is as

follows :

Silica,

57.28

Alumina,

1,46

Ferric oxide,

.56

Ferrous **

1.19

Manganous *“

.28

Magnesia*

20.88

Lime*

18,15

Soda,

2,61

Potash,

1.23

Water,

1.79

100.43

Jadeite?

Acmlte?

Nephrite

3.43

.84

53.01

1,46

.56

1.19

.28

20,88

13.15

,88

.23

1.51

1.23

1.28

5.77

L62

92.48

158

JADE AS A MINERAL.

Nephrite,
Jadeite,
Acmite,
Excess water,

92.48

5.77 Here the excess of alkalies re-
1 ■ 62 places magri esia in tl ic 1 1 e ph r i te.
.06

100.43

13223, Hatchet from the lake- dwellings at Neufchatel,
Switzerland. Specific gravity, 3.0034; hardness, 6.5;
of sub translucent material, with a compact, inter-
woven, laminated structure made up of so many
fine laminae that a beautiful sheen is seen trans-
versely across the left side. Color, light olive-
green.

Microstructure : the rock gives evidence of hav-
ing been crushed or dragged, and the structure indi-
cates a high degree of dynamic metamorphism.
The fibres are almost perfectly parallel, with stria-
tious that seem to be due to twinning parallel to
the ortbopinaeoid. The structure resembles that of
silicified wood in longitudinal section.

The analysis, with reduction by Clarke, is as
follows :

Na Al Bia0 6

Na Fe Si a 0 8

Nephrite

Silica,

55*48

1.91

1*35

53.22

Alumina,

.89

Ferric oxide,

*90

,90

Ferrous “

3*47

3,47

Magnesia,

22*69

Lime,

12,89

12*89

Soda,

,80

*49

.31

Potash,

,44

.06

*38

Water*

3,12

*44

100*68

3*29

3.62

92.09

Nephrite, 92*09

AlNaSiaOft, 3,29

Fe Na Si a Q s , 2.63

Ex cess w ater , 2.68

100.68

13262R. Broken medallion, China. Specific gravity, 2. 9510;
hardness, 6.5 ; compact, homogeneous, splintery
structure ; apparently no inclusions. Color, white.

JADE AS

MINERAL,

Micros truciwre : a microcrystalline to micro-
crypfcocrystallme aggregation of fibres of colorless
ampliibole that extinguish light between crossed
nicols in irregular patches, showing that the orig-
inal rock was a coarse-grained jadeite*

The analysis, with reduction by Clarke, is as
follows :

Ab Ca Si Ob

Fg 2 Ca SiOe

Nephrite

Silica,

57,77

1,47

.91

55.39

Alumina,

3.60

3.50

Ferric oxide,

2.76

2,43

Magnesia,

20.91

Lime,

13.61

1.37

.85

11.39

Water,

3,52

101.07

5.34

4.19

91.21

Nephrite,

Fe 5 Ca SiOa
Al, Ca SiO flj
Excess Fe a 0 3

91,21

4.19

5.34

,33

Computation uncertain. Absence of
alkalies seems to render the hornblendic
molecule lb Ca SiO* necessary. The
summation of the analysis is not. good.

101.07

13248. Hatchet from the Swiss lake- dwellings. Specific
gravity, 2.9836; hardness, 6,i> ; two sides flat and
free from stains, two stained to some depth. Color ,
light green.

Microstructure \ Fibres parallel, slightly curved;
the laminated structure is strongly marked and
accompanied by crooked cracks. It has the ap-
pearance of having been crushed or dragged, and
the structure indicates a high degree of dynamic
metamorphism.

The analysis, with reduction by Clarke, is as
follows :

Acmite Kb (Si0 3 ) 3 Nephrite
1.80 1.46 51.25

.50
na

Si lien.
Alumina,
Ferric oxide.

58.66

,50

1,76

1.24

" o

This nephrite carries an excess of
silica over bases.

Sword-guard from India. Specific gravity, 3.0783
hardness, 6.5 ; of sub translucent, very homogeneous
and remarkably compact material with a vein-like
fracture running parallel with the width of the
guard. Color , very dark greenish-black.

Microstructure: a nearly uniform mixture of
amphibole fibres in fan-shaped divergent clusters
sometimes approaching a spherulitic arrangement.

The analysis, with reduction by Clarke, is as

follows :

Jadeite ?

It ’s (SiOs),

Nephrite

Silica,

55.51

L59

4.85

49.57

Alumina,

1.72

.67

1.05

Feme oxide.

1.33

Ferrous **

7.(19

7.69

Magnesia,

18.80

Lime,

13.17

Soda,

.41

Water,

1.82

.55

100.45

2.67

6.73

89,78

Nephrite,

89,78

The excess of alumina and ferric

Jadeite,

2.67

oxide over jadeite is reckoned as

IV'* (S10 3 )a,

6,73

the silicate (A1 Fe) a (SiQah. This

Excess water,

1.27

may be regarded also as part of
the nephrite.

100.45

13118. Slab from New Zealand. Specific gravity, 3.0103 ;
hardness, 6.5. This is a section of a boulder with
part of the weathered surface still remaining at one
end. It is remarkably free from metallic inclusions
of every kind, is highly translucent, compact-, and
homogeneous, admitting of a very high polish.
Color, brilliant seaweed-green.

JADE AS A MINERAL.

Microstructure : Fibres in parallel, sometimes in
curved, arrangement, with a parallel or laminated
structure, strongly marked, and often accompanied,
by crooked cracks. The rock appears to have been
crushed or dragged, and the structure indicates a
high degree of dynamic metamorphism.

The analysis, with reduction by Clarke, is as
follows :

A1 Na Si fl O*

(AlFe), (SiO a ) 5

Nephrite

Silica,

58.14

1.40

4.50

52.24

Alumina,

.98

,59

.39

Ferric oxide,

3.39

Ferrous M

.85

,85

Manganous “

.22

,22

Magnesia,

22.38

Lime,

12.53

12,53

Soda,

.36

Water,

1.69

1.30

100.54

2.35

8.28

89.52

Neph rite,

89.52

A1 i\ T a ShO«,

2.35

Nephrite =

B'% (SiOab,

8.28

HaCasMgs

(SiOa)ia or

Excess water,

.39

Ca (II, Mg)

S (SIO0«

100.54

13214. Fragment of boulder from river-bed, China. Spe-
cific gravity, 2,9825 ; hardness, 6,5. Translucent,
compact, splintery structure, with very finegrained
texture on cut surfaces. One-half of the mass lias
been polished by attrition in the river, and stained
by oxidation of iron and other minerals. Color ,
light sage-green.

Microstructure : a confused aggregate of amphib-
ole fibres that in places reach the size of compact
crystals, with a few fragments of jadeite remaining.

The analysis, with reduction by Clarke, is as
follows :

162

JADE AS A MINERAL.

Jadeite

R ", ($iO*) 3

Nephrite

Silica,

58.59

4,33

1.95

52,31

Alumina,

2.33

1.84

.49

Ferric oxide,

.97

Ferrous "

,11

.11

Manganous* f

.35

Magnesia,

22,30

22.30

Lime,

12.41

Soda,

.98

Potash,

.21

Water,

1.54

99, 79

7.36

3.41

89.02

Nephrite,

89.02

Jadeite,

7,36

Nephrite =

R'VSiOsJa,

3.41

Ca(HflMg)s(SiOg),

99.79 ■

3136. Screen-picture from China. Specific gravity, 2.9609 ;
hardness, 6.5 ; translucent, compact, homogeneous,
with white mottlings or inclusions that are almost
opaque and are evidently nephrite. Color , white,
with light greenish tint.

Microstructure : clearly the result of amphibolic
alteration of jadeite. The rock consists of microcrys-
talline to microcryptocrystalline aggregations of
fibres of colorless amphibole that extinguish light
between crossed nicols in irregular patches, some of
which are banded in parallel lines. These corre-
spond to the originally twinned pyroxenes. In
places the amphibole is in compact crystals. A few
small clouded spots appear to be impure muscovite.

The analysis, with reduction by Clarke, is as
follows :

Jhdeile

IV \ Ca Si Or

Nephrite

Silica,

56.66

4,49

.70

51.47

Alumina,

2,74

1.91

,83

Ferric oxide.

,56

Ferrous * f

*51

.51

Magnesia,

23.42

23,42

Lime,

12.52

.05

11.87

Soda,

1.16

Water,

2.23

.93

99.80

7.56

2.74

88.20

JADE AS A MINERAL,

X63

Nephrite,

88.20

Nephrite =

Jadeite,

7.56

HaCiL, Mgii(SlQa)tG or

ir s Ca SiOft,

2.74

Ca, (H 2 Mg)s(Si0 3 )*,

Excess water,

1.30

99.80

13193 EL Medallion with carving of dragon-heads, China.
Specific gravity, 2.9706 ; hardness, 6,5 ; remarkably
pure and homogeneous, exhibiting a characteristic
splintery fracture when broken. Color, white,
with milky tint.

Microstrmture : considerable parallelism is seen
in the fibres in places, and there are traces of the
original pyroxenic grains in the arrangement of
the fibres. Prismatic crystals of amphibole are
abundant, and lie in several directions.

The analysis, with reduction by Clarke, is as
follows :

Jadeite

IT' s (Si0 3 ) 5

Nephrite

Silica,

5782

720

5.72

50,90

Alumina,

1.14

,51

.63

Ferric oxide,

4.10

Magnesia,

20.49

Lime.

IS. 93

13,03

Soda,

.31

,31

Water t

S.08

1.57

100.87

&G2

10.45

86,89

Nephrite,

86,89

State of iron nn certain.

If ferrous

ir f s ($i0 3 ) 8 ,

10.45

the summation would be 0.41 lower,

Jadeite,

2.02

and better. Nephrite would then be

Excess water,

1,51

about

7 per cent, higher.

100.87

3156. Vase from China, Specific gravity, 2,9539; hardness,
6.5 ; of a translucent, homogeneous and compact
material with several inclusions, 2 to 3 mm. in width,
of a delicate grayish- brown color. Color , white, with
very light greenish tint.

Microstructure ; a uniform aggregation of minute
fibres. In the finer-grained portion are groups of
compact amphiboles yielding fan-shaped sections.

MIITER A L

The analysis, with reduction
follows :

Hep] i rite,

A1 Na Si a Os,
Fe Ka Si a Q B ,
Excess water.

70
7*88
3.93
1.51

100.G2

by Clarke, is as

A1 SijOj

Fe Ha SUO,

Hephrite

57.89

4.68

2.04

51*17

1.99

1.36

1*36

20*74

20.74

13.60

12*60

2*06

1.21

,53

.33

3.38

1,87

100.03

7*88

3,93

86.70

13233. Hatchet from the hike-dwellings of Neufchatel,
Switzerland. Specific gravity, 3.0118 ; hardness, 6.5 ;
material very compact and subtranslucent. Color ,
light olive-green.

Microstructure : parallel fibres, sometimes in a
slightly curved arrangement, with a parallel or
laminated structure strongly marked, and accom-
panied by crooked cracks. There is every appear-
ance of the rock having been crushed or dragged and
the structure indicates a high degree of dynamic
metamorphism.

The analysis, with reduction by Penfield, is as
follows :

£ ~

3 «
CO

111

3*2

3 g

Silica,

57.19

7.44

49,75

57*35

57.69

Alumina,

3.34

2.24

Ferric oxide, 1,60

1.60

Ferrous “

1.10

1*10

Magnesia,

31.97

21*97

28*32

28.85

Lime,

13.16

*73

12.43

14.33

13.46

Soda,

.30

.20

Potash,

1.44

Water,

1.83

*90

0*92

100.73

13.65

86.15

0.92

10O.O0

100.00

JADE AS A MINERAL.

165

3148. Sculptured rock-mass , from China. Specific gravity,
2.9549 ; hardness, 6.5 ; a very large piece of remark-
ably pure material. Color, white, with light-green-
ish tint.

Microstructure : a microcrystalline to microcrypto-
orys tal line aggregation of colorless fibres and flakes or
scales, having a confused arrangement which in places
approaches a more definite grouping, in which the
fibres lie in several directions. In each of these direc-
tions the fibres are approximately parallel and slightly
curving, so that the streaks or bands of fibres extin-
guish the light simultaneously between crossed
nicols. The polarizing colors of these minute fibres
are grays of the first order. They grade into thicker
and more compact crystals with higher interference
colors. Throughout this mass are scattered frag-
mentary crystals of colorless jadeite, which is dis-
tinguished from the amphibole by its higher refrac-
tion. The double refraction is also higher. Its
prismatic cleavage is also characteristic. A lamellar
twinning is present and in places is curved, and
apparently the result of strain. The amphibole is
compact in some cases and fibrous in othei's. The
transition is into compact amphibole which frays out
into curved fibres at the ends. It is evident that flie
fibrous amphibole composing this rock lias been
derived from colorless pyroxene or jadeite remnants
of which still exist in the rock.

The analysis, with reduction by Clarke, is as

follows :

Jadeite

Fe (NaK) Si 2 O fl

Nephrite

Silica,

57.46

6,36

1*25

49 85

Alumina,

2.70

Ferric oxide.

.83

Magnesia,

20,87

20*87

Lime,

12*49

13.49

Soda,

1,79

1.64

,15

Potash,

1*64

.26

1*28

Water,

2.71

1.28

100.49

10,70

2.49

85.87

166

JADE AS A MINERAL.

Nephrite,

85.87

Jadeite,

10.70

Nephrite =

Acini te ?

3.40

Ca (HaMgtaCSiOah approx

Excess water,

1.43

100.49

13246. Slab from jade boulder* Siberia. Specific gravity,
3*0070; hardness, 6.5. Highly translucent, very com-
pact and homogeneous, with characteristic splintery
fracture. Color, seaweed-green, with clouds of
brown.

Microstructure ; a nearly uniform mixture of am-
phibole fibres in fan-shaped, divergent clusters ; some-
times approaching a spherulitic arrangement.

The analysis, with reduction by Clarke, is as
follows :

AlNaSLOe H^sCaSiOa Nephrite

Silica,

55.96

1.97

2.43

51.56

Alumina,

2.33

.84

1.49

Ferric oxide,

4,28

4.13

Magnesia,

£0.35

20.35

Lime,

13.49

2.26

11,23

Soda,

,51

.51

Water,

2,72

2.72

99,04

3.32

10.30

85.86

Nephrite,

85.86

Al Na Si 2 0 6

3.32

R"'j Ca SiO*

10.30

Here, unless the iron oxide is
in error, the hornblendic mole-

99.48

cule R A Ca Si 0 B seems to be

Excess Fe t Os,

*16

necessary.

99:64

13095, A small saucer-shaped dish , from China (one of a
pair)* Specific gravity, 2.9758 ; hardness, 6.5 ; of
translucent, homogeneous and very compact material,
with a mottling throughout part of it of a trifle more
opaque and slightly darker substance, probably
nephrite, and an inclusion in one part of a most pro-
nounced crystalline structure that may be a remnant
of former jadeite. A few microscopic flakes of color-
less mica are present. Color s sage-green.

JADE AS A MINERAL.

167

The analysis by Walden, with reduction by Clarke,
is as fol low r s :

Jadeite Ac mite Nephrite

Silica,

57.42

5,49

1.96 49,97

Alumina,

2.66

2,35

,31

Ferric oxide.

1.31

Ferrous

L78

1.78

Manganous oxide,

,38

.28

Magnesia,

14.30

Lime,

16.19

Soda,

1.93

1,43

.51

Water,

3.69

2.63

89.56

9.26

3.78 85.51

Nephrite,

85.51

The nephrite is distinctly hy-

Jadeite,

9.36

drous, and the excess of lime

Ac mite,

3.78

over magnesia in it indicates its

Excess Water,

1.01

pyroxenic origin.

99.56

13030. Fragment of a water- worn boulder, New Zealand.
Specific gravity, 3.0122; hardness, 6.5 ; translucent,
very compact, and homogeneous, admitting of a high
polish ; with transverse fracturing and lain i use
parallel to the flat length of the mass.

Mi&'ostructure : fibres parallel, sometimes in curved
arrangement with a parallel or laminated structure
strongly marked and often accompanied by crooked
cracks. The rock appears to have been crushed or
dragged, and the structure indicates a high degree of
dynamic metamorphism. Color , rich dark green.

The analysis, with reduction by Penfleld, is as

follows :

"Jtrj]

S „
CO

!§

s**

Silica,

57,78

5.52

3.40

49.86

57.62

57.69

Alumi na t

2.85

2.35

Ferric oxide,

1.60

Ferrous *'

2 83

2.83

Magnesia,

14.80

25.15

28.85

Lime,

15.03

15.02

17.33

13.46

Soda,

Potash.

1.63

1.01

0,62

LOO

.66

Water,

2,75

2.45

99.76

9.54

4.63

84,96

100,00

100.00

Unaccounted for : Potash 0,34 ; water 0.30 = 0.64,

168

JADE AS A MINERAL*

13088* Fragment of boulder from New Zealand* Specific
gravity, 3.0000 ; hardness, 6.5 ; translucent, compact,
homogeneous. The tough, splintery character of the
material is very apparent in many places, A number
of the original boulder surfaces are still un worked*
Under the microscope there is a faint suggestion of
the patches derived from previous pyroxene, but the
amphiboLe fibres are in a confused aggregation, with
occasionally longer streaks of nearly parallel fibres*
Color, spinach-green with patches of olive-green*

The analysis, with reduction by Clarke, is as
follows :

Ha A1 Si s O e

Na Fe SinOo

Nephrite

Silica,

56.41 2*14

5.78

48*51

Alumina,

.91 .91

Ferric oxide.

3*84

3.84

Ferrous ' 1

1.93

1*92

Manganous oxide*

*15

.15

Magnesia,

19.09

19,09

Lime*

13.81

12,81

Soda,

3,64 .55

1.49

.60

Water,

2.56

1.15

100.33 3.60

11*09

84.33

Nephrite*

84.23

N & A1 ShOfl*

3.60

Fe A1 Si s Q*,

11.09

Excess Water*

L41

100.33

13006* Slab, New Zealand. Specific gravity, 3.0019; hard*
ness, 6*5 ; translucent, homogeneous, compact in
structure ; filled with splintery velnings and frac-
tures* Color , pea-green*

Microstructure; fibres in parallel, sometimes
curved, arrangement, with a strongly marked parallel
or laminated v structure* The rock gives evidence of
having been crushed or dragged, and the structure
indicates a very high degree of dynamic meta-
morphism.

The analysis, with reduction by Clarke, is as
follows :

*£A'J9ffESiBBE&sem.

JADE AS A MINERAL,

A1 (NaK) Si^Os

R"' a (Si0 3 ) a

Nephrite

Silica,

00.63

2.40

6.40

47.74

Alumina,

3.14

1.06

1.08

Ferric oxide.

3.99

Magnesia,

31.09

21.69

Lime,

13.41

Soda,

.20

,20

Potash,

.69

,69

Water,

1.67

,26

100.42

444

11.47

03.10

Nephrite,

83.10

K is equivalent toNa, and is put

ir a (Sio»),.

11.47

in the glaucophane-like molecule.

A1 R' SijOs,

4.44

State of iron doubtful In a pea-

Excess witter,

1.41

green jade it should be mainly

ferrous.

100.43

3246, Wine-jug from China ; a tomb piece. Specific
gravity, 2,9243 ; hardness, 6.5, Color ; light gray,
changed in part by oxidation to a darker gray, with
brownish hues, and seams and fractures of dead oak*
leaf color,

Microstruoture : a microcrystalline to microcrypto*
crystalline aggregation of fibres of colorless amphib-
ole that extinguish light between crossed nicols in
irregular patches, some of which are banded in
parallel lines. These patches correspond to the
originally twinned pyroxene. In places the aniphib-
ole is in compact crystals. There is also a mottling
similar to that noticed in the large crystals of jadeite
where it was the result of strain,

' is as

The analysis,

with

reduction by

Clarke,

follows :

Jadeite, etc.

Nephrite

Silica ,

56.91

9.17

47,74

Alumina,

3.84

2.84

Ferric oxide.

1.56

Magnesia,

21.83

21.82

Lime,

11.56

Soda,

1.62

1,62

Potash ,

1.19

1,17

Water,

3.07

,49

100.57

16.36

81.61

170

JADE AS A MINERAL.

Nephrite, 81,61

H R Si a 0 5 16 J6

Excess water, 3.58

100.55

.02 K a O unaccounted for.

The pyroxene molecule here
represents jadeite, A1 Na Si fl O #1
and acmite, Fe Na SLO*, with
potassium partly replacing
sodium.

13211. Fragment of boulder, Siberia. Specific gravity,
3.0138 ; hardness, 6.5 ; part of the original surface of
wliat was a water-worn boulder. Translucent, show-
ing on sawed surface a remarkably homogeneous and
compact texture. On the fractured surfaces very
splintery, in some parts almost fibrous. A few in-
cluded crystals of a black metallic substance, appar-
ently chromic iron. Color y brilliant seaweed-green.

Mierosiructnre : there are mottled patches, but the
mottling is so coarse that the details of it can be
seen. It consists of fanlike bundles of fibres crossing
one another in two or more directions, sometimes
producing spherulitic aggregates with four long
arms. In other places the fibres are arranged in
lines of lenticular or spindle-shaped bundles, which
produce curving lines. Between the latter are fibres
in other orientations, probably bundles seen in cross-
section. This appears to be the same structure that
produces the mottling in the finer-grained forms.
The long streaks of parallel fibres are very marked.

The analysis, with reduction by Penfield, is as

follows :

E «

8_r

1 !

-9

sS*

h — 1

ClS.

Theory

Silica,

57.65

3.40

7.44

47.81

56.76

57.69

Alumina,

1.06

1,06

Ferric oxide,

4.93

Ferrous

.11

Magnesia,

14.95

24.19

28.85

Lime,

1G.05

16.05

19.05

13.46

Soda,

3.38

.62

1.76

Potash,

.93

,28

Water,

2.46

3.42

100.52

4.08

14.41

81.34

100.00

100 00

Unaccounted for ; Potash 0.65 ; water 0.04 = 0,60.

JADE AS A MINERAL.

171

13268. Boulder from river-bed, China. Specific gravity,
2.9690; hardness, 6.5; exterior worn down by attri-
tion, and though stained black and brown exteriorly
the inner surface is practically unaltered. Color ,
greenish -gray.

Microstructure : the once coarse-grained aggregate
of pyroxene crystals is perfectly mapped out by
patches of similarly oriented amphibole fibres
arranged in a direction corresponding to the twinned
positions of the pyroxene lamellae, with patches of
mottling so coarse that the details of the structure
can be seen. It consists of fanlike bundles of fibres
crossing one another in two or more directions, some-
times producing spheral itic aggregates, witli four
long arms. In other places the fibres are arranged in
lines of lenticular or spindle-shaped bundles which
produce curving lines. Between the latter are fibres
in other orientations, probably bundles seen in cross-
section. This appears to be the same structure that
produces the mottling in the finer-grained forms.

The

analysis, with

reduction

Clarke, is

follows

;

Jadeite

Acmite Nephrite

Silica,

37.43

7.30

2.82

47.22

Ahi min a,

3 14

3.14

Ferric oxide. I 88

1,88

Ferrous

.47

,47

Magnesia,

19.68

Li me,

12.04

12.94

Soda,

2 87

1.91

.73

,23

Water,

2 61

1.26

100.12

12.44

5.43

80.90

Nephrite,

80.90

Jadeite,

12,44

Acmite,

5.43

Excess water,

1.35

100.12

13008. Small round dish from China. Specific gravity,
2.9564; hardness, 6.5; of translucent, homogenous,
and compact material, in which a fine camphor-like,

B <

JADE AS A MINERAL.

apparently crystalline structure is seen that may
possibly be due to traces of the former jadeite ; and
the microscopic examination bears out this observa-
tion. The coarse-grained aggregate of pyroxene
crystals is perfectly mapped out by the patches of
similarly oriented amphibole fibres, arranged in a
direction corresponding to the twinned positions of
the pyroxene lamellse. Color , white, with light

creamy tint.

The analysis by Walden, with reduction by Clarke,

gave the following :

Jadeite

AL Ca SiOe

Nephrite

Silica, 56,83

8.71

141

47.01

Alumina,

5 + 33

3.70

1.63

Ferric oxide,

.46

Magnesia, 19-38

19.38

Lime, 13,11

1.03

12.08

Soda, !

2.25

Water, 3.44

1.50

100.80

14,66

4,23

79.97

Nephrite,

79.97

Jadeite,

14.66

Al s Cfi Si Oj,

4.33

Excess water,

1.94

100.80

13212. Fragment of boulder from Tnrkistan. Specific
gravity, 3.0033; hardness, 0.5. Color, seaweed-green.

Microsiructure : a mixture of amphibole fibres in
fan-shaped, divergent clusters sometimes approaching
a sphernlitic arrangement, as in No. 13216. Some of
the bundles, however, are longer and larger, and
needles of compact amphibole are sparingly present.

The analysis, with reduction by Clarke, is as

follows :

Al Na SijOs

Fe Na 8i a Oa

Nephrite

Silica,

58.04

5.24

6.96

45,84

Alumina,

2,23

2.23

Ferric oxide,

4.64

Ferrous

Manganous oxide,

.38

,88

Magnesia,

14,50

14 50

Lime,

12,68

12.68

Soda,

4.83

1.35

1.80

1,68

Potash,

.39

,39

Water,

2.83

2.51

100.68

8,82

13.40

78.14

JADE AS A MINERAL,

173

Nephrite, 78,14

FeNaSi 3 0 5p 13,40

A1 Na S| a O Bl 8.82

Excess water, .32

100.68

The nephrite contains water and
alkalies replacing magnesia. The
iron determination may be doubt-
ful.

13007G-. Fragment of worked nephrite from China. Spe-
cific gravity, 2.9680 ; hardness, 6.6 ; translucent, com-
pact, splintery structure with veinings of darker
material, and inclusions of some other dark, almost
black mineral. Color , spinach-green, with russet
veinings.

Microstructure : a confused aggregation of amphib-
ole fibres, with occasional longer streaks of nearly
parallel fibres and a faint suggestion of patches
derived from pyroxene. The texture varies from
place to place. Some of it is extremely fine-grained ;
in other places it is in patches of coarser grain.

The analysis, with reduction by Clarke, is as
follows :

,r R Si a Oa

R a Ca SiOq

Nephrite

Silica,

56.13

9.46

1.40

45.27

Alumina,

5.06

4.02

1.04

Ferric oxide,

2.12

2,12

Ferrous M

1.01

Magnesia,

19.20

Lime,

11.88

1,31

10.57

Soda,

1.10

1.19

Potash.

1,00

1.90

Water,

2.29

1.29

100.73

16.57

5.87

77.34

Nephrite,

77.34

R"'R' BijOfl,

16.57

R ' 5 Ca SiOft,

5.87

Excess water,

1.00

100.78

13216. Hatchet from New Caledonia. Specific gravity,
2.9311 ; hardness, 6.5 ; polished all over except in
two places where the weathered surface of the origi-
nal boulder is visible. Color , dark-brown, with veins
and lines of lighter shades.

174

JADE AS A MINERAL.

Microstructure: a nearly uniform mixture of
amphibole fibres, in fan-shaped, divergent clusters,
sometimes approaching a spherulitic arrangement.

The analysis, with reduction by Clarke, is as
follows :

Al Ha Si a O<j Fe TV Si 3 O s Serpentine Nephrite

Silica,

02.60

3.40

1.62

4.92

42,66

Alumina,

1.45

Ferric oxide.

2.10

1.08

Ferrous "

2.14

2,14

Manganous oxide,

.10

,10

Magnesia,

26.06

4.92

18.14

Lime,

12.72

12,72

Soda,

,93

.88

.Oo

Potash,

.57

.17

YYater,

3.62

L48

99.29

5.73

3,32

11 32

71.76

Nephrite,

75.76

Serpentine, 11,32

Silica in nephrite 0.05£

Al Na 81,0,, 5.78
Fe R' SijOa, 8.33

loo low.

96.13

Ferric Oxide, 1,02 }
Water, 2.14 )

unaccounted for.

99.29

13266, Large flat carved celt from China. Specific gravity,
2,9506; hardness, 6.5; a confused aggregate of
amphibole fibres, with a small amount of colorless
jadeite in fan-shaped aggregates. Color, dark brown
of various shades.

Analysis, with reduction by Clarke, is as follows :

Jadeite ?

Serpentine ?

Nephrite

Silica,

12.98

4.25

9.48

39.25

Alumina,

1.79

Ferric oxide,

,01

Ferrous oxide,

.46

Manganous oxide,

.01

.05

Magnesia,

21.49

9.48

16.01

Lime,

13.39

Soda,

1.11

Potash,

.71

Water,

3.50

2.84

99.53

7.1o

21.80

69.87

f 1 *! IF II M 1 lin

Nephrite,

Serpentine,

Jadeite,

Ferric oxide.
Water,

JADE AS

69.87

21.80

7.15

MINERAL.

98.83
.05 }

.66 f

99.53

unaccounted for*

13210. Fragment of crude jade from Jordansmuhl, Silesia.
Specific gravity, 2.9451 ; hardness, 6.5 ; translucent,
very compact, tough splintery texture, breaking into
irregular horn-like fractures. Color , spinach-green,
with black.

Micro structure : numerous compact prisms of
amphibole which grade into fibres, are in nearly
parallel groups and cross one another in several direc-
tions.

The analysis, with reduction by Clarke, is
follows :

Ncph rite,

62.81

Fe Na Si 2 G*,

9.29

A1 Na SiaOfl,

23.45

95.55

Ferric oxide,

.57

Water,

4.08

100*20

A1 Na Si a O,s

Fe Na Si a O tt

Nephrite

Silica,

54.44

13.93

4.82

85.69

Alumina,

5.92

Ferric oxide,

8.72

3.15

Ferrous oxide,

2.56

Manganous oxide,

.22

Magnesia,

16.79

Lime,

7.51

Soda,

4.04

3.60

1.04

Potash,

.28

Water,

4.12

.04

100.20

23.45

9 M

62.81

A1 and Fe probably in glauco-
phane and riebeckite molecules re-
spectively.

13086. Adze , New Zealand. Specific gravity, 3.2663 ; hard-
ness, 6,5 ; of compact, schistose, horny structure,
showing black grains of chromic iron. Color , pear*

leaf green.

176

JADE AS A MINERAL.

Microstruclure : very minute particles and fibres
with a preponderating parallel arrangement, with
banded structure, some bands being clouded, others
transparent. There are small opaque spots that are
green by incident light, and irregularly shaped crys-
tals of a reddish-brown isotropic mineral probably
perovskite, which is surrounded by a white opaque
substance resembling leucoxene.

Analysis by Walden, with reduction by Penlield, is
as follows :

Jadeite-like

Mineral

Diopside
Ca Mg (SiOJa

Diopside
Cal. to 100 %

Diopside

Theory

Silica,

54.19

10.80

43.39

54.06

55, 57

Alumina,

3.48

Ferric oxide T

1.79

Magnesia,

14.58

19.16

18.51

Lime,

24.03

1.74

22,29

27.77

25.92

Soda,

.88

Water,

.65

99.60

IS. 69

80.36 '

100.00

130U5. Axe from the lake-dwellings at Neufchatel, Switzer-
land. Specific gravity, 3.0919 ; hardness, 6.5 ; the
material exhibits a twinned horny structure. Color ,
very dark green almost black.

Microstructure : consists mainly of ampkibole in
minute, irregularly shaped crystals, and some larger
ones that exhibit distinct green color, with pleochro-
ism from yellowish- to bluish-green. In places the
amphibole occurs in distinct prismatic crystals, with
the prism faces and cleavage well developed.
Between these minute crystals is a colorless mineral
with lower refraction and low double refraction, of
very pure substance, suggesting quartz. It is wholly
allotriomorphic, or interstitial, acting as a cement for
the other minerals. Though in very small areas, it is
very widely scattered through the rocks and is pres-
ent in considerable quantity for an accessory mineral.
Scattered through the rock in much greater quantity
are small particles of an almost colorless mineral
whose form and optical properties correspond to

JADE AS A MINERAL. 177

those of klinozoisite. It constitutes about 4<H of the
rock. With it is associated a small amount of
epidote, distinguished by its yellow color in thin
sections. There are a few small crystals of colorless
garnet, and small, irregularly shaped grains of a
highly refracting yellowish mineral, possibly titanite,
with attached grains of magnetite.

Analysis, with reduction by Penfield, is as follows :

GlaucophaDe Epidote Quartz

NftAl(SiO,) a .

NnPe<8iO a ) 3+

(MgCa)SiOj + HCa a A]»SU<

Silica* SiO a ,

51.31

11.76

12.00

7,02

15,48

Alumina* Al a O a ,

16.31

5.00

13.31

Ferric ax> f Ftj 3 O a

,* 6.03

aoa

Magnesia* MgO,

4,05

4.05

Lima, CaO,

11,34

1,71

0.63

Soda, Na a O

5.76

2.06

3.10

Potaali, K 3 0*

,55

.55

Water, H a 0*

.76

100.18

10.97

23.13

13.08

30.18

CHEMICAL NOTES.

BY S. L. PENFIELD.

Jadeite.

In its chemical nature jadeite is a silicate of sodium and
aluminium, and the formula assigned to it is Na A1 (SiO,) a .
The theoretical composition of the ideally pure mineral is
as follows :

Silica, SiO*. 59.40#

Alumina, A1 5 0 5> 25.25
Soda, Wa 5 0 ( 15.35

100,00

An examination of the jadeite analyses given above indi-
cates that although silica, alumina, and soda are the essen-
tial constituents, small amounts of other substances are
always present. The silica maintains a fairly uniform
percentage, close to that demanded by the theory. The
same is true of the alumina, although it falls below the
theory when ferric oxide, Fe^tb, is present. This latter
oxide plays the same role in chemical compounds as

178

JADE AS A MINERAL.

alumina, and lias, therefore, the property of replacing
alumina in complex mineral substances. Or it may be
considered tliat the jadeite molecule Na A l (SiO a ) s is
replaced in part by the isomorphous mgerite molecule
Na Fe (SiOj 5 . When the percentages of soda are consid-
ered it will be observed that the amounts fall considerably
below tlie theory. These deficiencies are largely made up
by potash, K a Q, which may replace soda, since it is similar
to it in its chemical relations, but still there is a deficiency
of the combined alkalies, soda plus potash. The role
played by the small amounts of lime, CaO, and magnesia,
MgO, is somewhat questionable. Together they combine
with silica to form a variety of pyroxene known as diop-
side, Ca Mg(Si0 3 ) a , and the presence of varying amounts of
this silicate with jadeite might be expected. The analyses,
however, indicate that thediopside molecule usually is not
present, for it contains no alumina, and its presence with
jadeite would be indicated by a lowering of the percentage
of alumina. In some complex silicates lime, CaO, and
magnesia, MgO, play the same role as the alkalies Na„0 and
K a 0, and it would seem from the analyses of jadeite in the
Collection that the small amounts of these oxides act like
the potash in replacing soda. The traces of ferrous oxide,
FeO, and loss on ignition (probably water) may be dis-
regarded in considering the composition of jadeite.

In order to show that ferric oxide replaces alumina, and
that potash, lime, and magnesia replace soda, the analyses
have been modified by substituting for Fe a G s an amount of
Al a O s equivalent to it, and for K,Q, CaO, and MgO their
equivalent of Na u O, and then calculating to 100 per cent.
The recalculated analyses can thus be compared with the
theoretical composition of jadeite, and it will be observed
tliat the agreement is very satisfactory :

III

Number

8248

13195

13355

1 3206 B

13243

Specific gravity.

3.3394

3.33 -n

3.3373

3.3303

3.32S7

Silica. SIO*,

58.48

59.02

58.40

57 60

58.69

Alumina, Al?O s ,

23.57

34.88

27.05

25.75

25.56

Ferric oxide, Fe 3 0 3t

1.68

1,33

Magnesia, MgO,

1.33

1.10

,57

.13

.11

Lime, CaO,

1.62

1.15

.65

.58

Soda, Na a O,

10. 33

11.21

11.37

13.31

13.00

Potneh, K^O

3.00

1 34

2.20

1.54

Ferrous oxide* FeO,

.38

Manganoua oxide, MnQ,

.19

Lose on Ignition, H s O,

,07

.18

.25

100.26

100.47

100,42

99. B2

99.74

JADK AS A MIinSIiAL.

The analyses, after making tlie substitutions, and after
recalculating to 100 per cent., are as follows:

III

Silica,

58.48

69.02

58.40

57.60

58,69

Alumina,

24.59

25,59

27.05

25.75

25.56

Soda,

16.22

15.01

14,34

15,54

14,88

Theory for
Jadeite

09.29

99,62

97,79

98.89

99.13

Na A t (SiO a ) a

Silica,

58.90

59.25

58.52

58.25

59,20

59.40

Alnmitia s

24.77

25,69

27.12

20.04

25.79

25.25

Soda,

16,33

15,07

14.30

15,71

15,01

15.35

100,00

100.00

moo

100.00

100,00

It may thus be concluded that potash, K a O and small
amounts of lime, CaO, and magnesia, MgO, may replace
soda in jadeite.

Mixture of jadeite with other materials.

The analyses indicate that there are in the Collection a
few specimens which are mixtures of jadeite with other
minerals. Some of these are isomorphous mixtures of the
different members of the pyroxene group, jadeite, tegerite,
and diopside, and in one sense these are not mixtures, since
the different molecules can combine together into a homo-
geneous crystal. In other cases the materia! is an inter-
growth of different minerals.

Pyroxene — Essentially j adeite.

No. 13242. The existence of a rather large amount of
ferric oxide indicates the presence of the acgerite molecule
Na Fe (SiO,)„ and accounts undoubtedly for the dark color
of the material. Also the somewhat low percentages of
combined alumina and ferric oxide, together with the con-
siderable amounts of lime and magnesia, indicate the pres-
ence of the diopside molecule Ca Mg(SiO a ),.* The analysis
shows that the material is a pyroxene, essentially jadeite,
and that the molecules are present in the proportion indi-
cated below :

* A little iron replaces the magnesia.

ISO

.TADE AS A MINERAL.

Diopside /EgerHe

Jadeite

Ca(MgFu)(Si0 3 ) 3 . NaFe{Si0 3 ) 3 .

NaAl(SiQ 3 )*.

Cal to 100

Theory

Sp. grav..

3.8034

Silica,

50.60

4.08 6*72

44.90

57.85

50.40

Alumina,

20*46

20.46

26.31

25.25

Ferric uxide,

4.49

4.40

Ferrous oxide,

.75

M&gnealfl*

1.04

1.28

.36

Lime,

3.28

2.29

.90

Soda,

1105

1.74

0.01

15.84

15.85

Potash,

1.15

Loss on ignition,

.48

100.50

9.30 12.95

77.80

moo

ioo*oo

No. 13102C. Three analyses indicate that there is no
essential difference between the green and the lavender
portions. The slight excess of ferric oxide in the green
portion indicates the presence of a little more of the
segerite molecule. The somewhat low percentage of
alumina and the high percentage of lime and magnesia
indicate the presence of the diopside molecule. The calcu-
lation has been made upon the analysis of the mixture, and
shows that the material is pyroxene, with the jadeite mole-
cule predominating.

1 "

Mixture.

is O

K'%
5 ^
6

3 O
■S B

4 <
&

5 g
B §
1 B

£ t
« I
4 £

Sp. £rav. s
Silica,

3.2578

57.79

57.49

57.45

7.80

49.65

57.88

59*40

Alumina,

21.40

31.56

21.94

26.34

25,35

Ferric oxide,

.80

1.05

*91

.91

Magnesia,

4.72

4.79

3.96

3.00

.96

Lime,

3.06

2.90

3.10

Soda,

12,36

11.98

12.13

13.13

15.88

15,35

Potash,

Loss on ignition,

*76

.45

*79

100.89

100,22

100.28

13,90

85.59

100.00

The water in this material and the one previous may
indicate the presence of a small amount of analcite, Na AI
(SiO a ) a + H 5 0. Analcite and diopside would tend to bring
the specific gravity below that of normal jadeifce, while
segerite, specific gravity 3.5, would tend to increase it.

JADE AS A MINERAL.

181

Jadeite and Analcite,

No. 13215. The low specific gravity of this material is
noticeable. The analysis is like that of a jadeite, except
for the quantity of water. Professor Id dings, in his exami-
nation of thin sections of this material, has noted the pres-
ence of au isotropic material with the properties of anal-
cite, Na Al (SiO a ) 3 + H*0, and the presence of this mineral
would account both for the low specific gravity of the
material and the water. The specific gravity of analcite is
2,28.

is n

's °

w iCl

o
m
a U

’5 '"rt

* o
< B
<

/— V

£ 6

II
^ <
SS
£

£ f

« —

Sp. gray.,

3.2176

Silica,

58.41

1,50

15.84

41.07

58.37

59,40

Ahi xnina,

24,64

6,73

17.91

36.05

25.25

Ferric oxide,

.67

,67

Magnesia,

1.24

.52

.72

Li me,

1.43

,67

,76

Soda,

12,76

4.09

8.67

15.58

15.35

Potash,

.58

Less on ignition, 1,19

1.19

100.92

2.69

27,85

70.88

100.00

100,00

In this connection it is interesting to note the similarity
in chemical composition between jadeite, Na Al (Si0 3 ) 4 and
analcite, Na Al (SiO,)., + H s O. J. Lemberg* has shown,
moreover, that although jadeite is only slightly acted upon
by acids and alkaline solutions, fused jadeite can readily
be converted into analcite by subjecting it to the action
of a hot dilute solution of sodium carbonate under pres-
sure,

Glaucophane and Zoisite {Klmozoisite ?)

No. 13005. Only one example of this mixture has been
observed in the Collection. Under the microscope there
were observed epidote of pale color and low double refrac-
tion corresponding to klinozoisite (Zeitschr. Kryst . , VoL

* Zeitmhrift der Deut&ehm 0&?logi$chen xxix. p. 587, 1887,

182

JADE AS A MINERAL.

26, p. 166), a little quartz, and abundant material hav-
ing the cleavage and optical properties of a mineral belong-
ing to the amphibole group. The presence of nearly six
per cent, of soda in the specimen indicates that the amphib-
ole mineral must be related to glaucopliane and riebeck-
ite, which are believed to contain respectively the mole-
cules Na A1 (SiO,)., and Na Fe (SiO s )„ similar to the soda-
alumina and soda-iron silicates jadeite and aegerite. The
amounts of alumina, ferric oxide, and alkalies furnish a
basis for calculating the chemical composition as follows:

Grlmicopliane Epidote Quarts

• — — ' 1

N&Aj($i0,) 3 NaFe(SiO,1 3 (MgCa)Si0 3 IICa 2 Al 3 Si 3 0 J3 Si0 3
Specific gravity, 8.0919

Silica,

SiO,. 51.31

11.70

12,00

7.92

15.48

Alumina,

AljOs, 18.31

5.00

18.31

Ferric oxide, Fe?0 3 > 8.08

8.08

Magtieda,

MgO. 4.05

4.05

Lime,

CaO, 11.84

1.71

9.63

Soda,

Na.O, 5.76

8.10

Potash,

KjO, .55

.05

Water,

1-1,0, .76

.76

100.18

19.97

28.18

13.68

39.18

The glaucopliane molecules combined constitute 56.83 per
cent, of the total material, and are given below after calcu-
lation to 100 per cent. There are also given for compari-
son two analyses of glaucopliane from Lyra, one of the
Cyclades— l. by Sclmedermann, II. by Luedecke (Analyses
1 and % p* 399, Dana’s Mineralogy).

13005

Olaucophanc from Lyrj

Calculation

SiO Sf

55.74

56.49

55 64

Al 5 Oa T

8.80

13.23

15.11

FCjOa,

14.22

3.08

FeO,

10.91

6.85

MuO,

0.50

0.56

MgO ,

7.13

7.80

CaO,

3.01

2.40

Na 4 0,

10.13

9.34

KvO,

0.97

moo

99.63

100.78

JADE AS A MINERAL*

183

In most respects No. 18005 compares favorably with the
glaucophane analyses given for comparison, the discrep-
ancies being in the alumina and oxides of iron. It must be
borne in mind, however, that in the calculation all of the
iron oxide has been credited to the glaucophane, while un-
doubtedly part of it belongs to the epidote, It is safe,
therefore, to assume that the glaucophane contains some-
what more alumina and less ferric oxide than indicated by
the foregoing calculation, but the amount could not be
determined without analysis of either the epidote or the
glaucophane.

Jadeite and Alhite .

Of the minerals analyzed there is only one example of

this kind of mixture,

No. 13193.

Theoretical

comparison

Nephrite

Jadeite

Albite

of a mixture of

Ca Mg(Si 03> 4

Na AI (SlOa)a Na Al Si a G,

Nephrite

Jadeite

Aibite

Sp. gray. 2.8845

Silica,

88.47

2.20

23.80

32,47

2,17

28.87

32,48

Alumina,

20,76

11,53

9,23

12.48

9.20

Ferric oxide,

1.27

1,27

Magnesia,

1.11

1.08

Lime,

,50

.66

.50

Soda,

11 93

6.63

5.35

7.46

5,81

Potash,

,34

Water,

.36

100. -15

3.81

48,89

47,39

3,75

48,76

47,49

The analysis indicates the presence of a little nephrite,

D i op side.

No. 13086, Only one example of this kind of material
is indicated by the analysis. The properties that charac-
terize it are the following: Specific gravity from 3.24 to

3.28, considerably greater than that of nephrite. Hardness
about 6. Before the blowpipe the material fuses at about
4, but does not yield a clear glass-like jadeite, and does
not impart an intense yellow color to the flame. The
powdered mineral is not perceptibly attacked b} r hydro-
chloric acid. In order to identify the material with cer-
tainty the absence of an appreciable quantity of alumina,
and the presence of much calcium and magnesium, should
be determined. As indicated by the analysis the amount
of soda is very small, and there is some question, there-
fore, concerning the disposition of the alumina and ferric

1S4

JADE AS A MINERAL,

oxide, for they cannot belong to jadeite of normal compo-
sition, By combining the alumina and ferric oxide,
however, with silica, soda, and sufficient lime to give a com-
position corresponding to jadeite, the remaining constit-
uents correspond closely to a diopside, as shown by the
calculation.

Jadeite like

Diopside

Diopside cal.

Diopside

mineral

Ca Mg (SiOa)a

to 100*

Tlieorj

Sp, gray, 3.2663

Silica,

54.19

10.80

43,39

54.06

55,57

Alumina,

3.48

Ferric oxide.

1.79

Magnesia,

14.58

18.16

18.51

Lime,

24.03

1,74

22.29

27.77

25.92

Soda,

.88

Water,

,65

99.60

18.69

80.26

100.00

Nephrite,

Our knowledge of the chemical composition of the
amphiboles is not as satisfactory as that of the pyroxenes.
The formula Ca Mg a (SiQ s ), is assigned to a white variety of
amphibole known as tremolite, while ferrous iron replaces
a part of the magnesia in the green varieties. Small
amounts of alumina, ferric oxide, the alkalies soda and
potash, and water occur in the amphiboles, but just how
they are combined in the chemical molecule is not in all
cases well understood. The theoretical percentage compo-
sition corresponding to the formula of tremolite, Ca Mg*
(SiO,) 4 , is as follows ;

Silica, SiOi

57.69

Magnesia, MgO,

28.85

Lime, CaO,

13.46

100.00

On examining the analyses of nephrite it will be observed
that the percentages of silica, SiO a , and lime, CaO, main-
tain nearly uniform values, near those demanded by the
theory of tremolite, but the magnesia, MgO, percentages
exhibit not only a considerable variation, but they are
lower than the theory. The deficiencies in magnesia
are probably in part accounted for by the p resen ce of
water, since it has been shown by the analyses of a very

JADE AS A MINERAL.

185

pare variety of anfehophyllite,* a mineral closely related to
tremolite, that water can replace magnesia. It is not prob-
able that the water shown by the analyses comes from
serpentine, since the presence of the latter mineral would
very perceptibly lower both the speciiic gravity and the
percentage of silica.

The small quantities of alumina and ferric oxide are
usually accompanied by an amount of soda sufficient to
form the molecules Na s Al a (SiO a ) 4 and Na a Fe 3 (SiO a ) 4 . These
molecules are present respectively in the minerals glauco-
phane and riebeckite, which belong to the amphibole
group, and they are analogous in composition to jadeite
and segerite of the pyroxene group. Potash may take the
place of soda in these molecules.

The analyses of nephrite show a great similarity, and the
calculation of a few of them will serve to illustrate the pre-
vailing composition. As a basis of calculation the alumina
and ferric oxide have been combined with sufficient silica
and alkalies to form the glaucophane and riebeckite
molecules. The remaining silica has then been combined
with ferrous oxide, magnesia, lime, and water to form
a silicate, nephrite* of the general formula R Si0 3 (B=Fe,
Mg, Ca and H g )* For the sake of comparison with the
tremolite formula, Ca Mg a (Si0 3 ) 4 , the nephrite has been re-
calculated to 100# after increasing the magnesia by an
amount equivalent to that of the ferrous oxide and water.

JN o, lo211.

CJ tan copl lane Riebeckite

Nephrite

Nephrite Theory

Sp. gray. 3.9138

Na a Al s (SiOO* Na,Fe t (SiO a ) 4

cal. to lOOjS

Silica,

57,65

3.40 7.44

47.81

56.76

57.69

Alumina,

1.06

Ferric oxide.

4.93

Ferrous oxide,

.11

Magnesia,

14,95

14.95

24.19

28.85

Lime,

16.05

19.05

13.46

Soda,

3.38

.62 1.76

Potash,

.93

.28

Water,

3.46

2.42

190.53

4.08 14.41

81.34

100.90

100.00

Unaccounted for : Potash 0 65; water 0,04 =

= 0,69.

* American Journal of Science and Arts , VoL 40, p. 394, 1899.

A_ ji > ocu

n vs»-»!rvT

186 JADE AS A MINERAL.

The presence of a rather large amount of the riebeckite
molecule in this nephrite is noticeable.

No. 13030.

Glaucophane

EE check ite

Nephrite

Nephrite cal.

Theory

Na*AI ;

Sp, gray. 3.0122

atSiOa)* Nu s Fe ? (SiG a h

ESiOs

to I0W

Silica.

57.78

5.52

2.40

49.86

57.52

57.69

Alumina,

2.35

Ferric oxide ,

1.60

Ferrous oxide,

2,83

3,83

Magnesia,

14.80

25.15

28.85

Lime,

15.02

15.03

17.33

13.46

Soda,

1.63

1.01

0.62

Potash,

1.00

.60

Water,

2.75

2.45

99.76

9.54

4.62

84,96

100.00

Unaccounted for

: Potash 0.34 ; ^vater 0,30 = 0.64.

No. 13233.

* Glaucophane

Nephrite

Unaccounted Nephrite

and liiebecklte

Sp. gray, 3,0118

RSiOa

for

recalc u.

Theory

Silica,

57*19

7.44

49.75

57.35

57.69

Alumina,

2.24

Ferric ox.,

1.6G

1.00

Ferrous ox,,

1.10

Magnesia,

21.97

28.32

28.85

Lime,

13.16

.73

12.43

14.33

13.46

Soda,

.20

,20

Potash,

L44

1,44

Water,

1.82

,90

0,92

100.72

13.65

86.15

0.92

100.00

The foregoing analyses indicate the presence of the well-
recognized molecules, glaucophane and riebeckite, and of a
silicate of the general formula R Si0 3 , where R is Mg, Ca,
Fe and H„. Moreover, if the Fe and H, are regarded as
taking the place of Mg, the composition approximates to
that which is assigned to the crystallized mineral trem-
olite, Ca Mg, (SiO,),. The nearly uniform character of the
analyses is noticeable. In the few cases where the silica is
low (52.98 in No. 18266, specific gravity 2.9506 ; and 52.60
in No. 13216, specific gravity 2.9811) the magnesia and
water are high, and it is probable that a little serpentine is
present.

* The prevailing alkali is here potash, and it has been necessary to take some
calcium to make up for the deficiency of the combined alkalies.

ABSTRACT OF THE REDUCTIONS

Calculated by Clarke,

Jadeite,

97,82

Unaccounted for,

2,00

99.82

Calculated by Clarke,

Normal jadeite

95,7 1

Pseudo **

3,14

U n ac co it n te d for,

1.32

100,17

Calculated by Clarke,

Normal jadeite,

92,42

Pseudo £<

5.05

Unaccounted for,

2.27

90,74

Calculated by Clarke.

Normal jadeite,

91,02

Pseudo “

7.89

U n acco tinted f o r ,

.73

100.24

CalculatedJjy Clarke,

Jadeite,

89.92

TL*\ Ca SiO fl ,

3.04

Neplirite or d topside,

7.07

Excess of silica,

,13

100.16

Calculated by Pen field.

Jadeite,

35,59

Diopside,

13.90

97.47

90,4!>

Water not accounted for.

WMsmsm

188

JADE AS A MINERAL*

No.

13255 (China), Calculated by Clarke,

Normal jadeite,
Pseudo “

84.29 )
10.07 f

Unaccounted for,

6.06

100.42

No.

3248

(China), Calculated by Clarke*

Normal jadeite*

81*61 )

Pseudo “

17.13 f

Unaccounted for,

1*47

100,26

No.

13195

(China), Calculated by Clarke.

Normal jadeite,
Pseudo

79.24 )

20.00 f

Unaccounted for,

1.23

100*47

No.

13242

(Mexico), Calculated by Petifield*

Jadeite,

77*86

vEgerite,

12*95

Diopside, *

9.30

Loss, water,

*48

100*59

No* 13249 (Switzerland), Calculated by Clarke*

Jadeite,

75.61

Vb\ Ca SiO e ,

4*82

Magnetite ?

1*36

Nephrite,

16*81

Unaccounted for,

1.62

100*22

No.

13215

(Burma), Calculated by Penfield.

Jadeite,

70.38

Analcite,

27*85

Diopside,

2.69

94.36

98.79

99.24

(?)

100.92

JADE AS A MINERAL*

No. 13267 (Burma), Calculated by Clarke,

Amphibole (Na a >Ig T Si B O a4 ), 38.79

Jadeite,

Acini te,
Excess water,

No, 13193 (Mexico), Calculated by Penfield.

Jadeite,

Allnte,

Nephrite,

No, 13200 (China), Calculated by Clarke.

Nephri te, a p p r o x i m ate 1 y ,
Jadeite, “

No, 13334 (Alaska), Calculated by Clarke,

Nephrite,

Jadeite,

K" a Ca $iO e ,

Excess water,

No. 13335 (Alaska), Calculated by Clarke,

Nephrite,

Jadeite,

R", Ca Si0 6 ,

Excess water,

13122 (British Columbia), Calculated by Clarke,

Nephrite,

Jadeite,

Al a Ca SiO eJ
Excess water.

55.68

3.99

1. 45

99.91

48,89

47.39

3.81

100.09

96.00

4.00

100.00

95.58

1.36

L79

1.49

100.22

95,57

1,43

2.50

1.01

100.51

190

JADE AS A MINERAL,

No.

13205

(China),

Calculated by Clarke,

Nephrite,

94.33

Jadeite ?

4,15

Excess water,

2.05

100.53

No.

13262E

(China),

Calculated by Clarke,

Nephrite,

92.83

Jadeite ?

2.15

Ca SiO # ,

3,57

Excess water,

1.72

100.27

No.

3185

(China),

Calculated by Clarke.

Nephrite,

92.72

Serpentine,

1.93

Ca SiO e ,

2.40

Excess water,

3.23

100,28

No.

3121

(China),

Calculated by Clarke.

Nephrite,

92.48

Jadeite ?

5,77

Ac mite,

1.62

Excess water,

,56

100.43

No.

13223 (Switzerland), Calculated by Clarke.

Nephrite,

92.09

R" Na Si,0„

5.91

Excess water,

2.68

100,68

No.

13262R

(China),

Calculated by Clarke,

Nephrite,

91,21

II ; Ca SiO Q ,

9,53

Excess Fe a O al

,33

101,07

JADE AS A MINERAL,

No. 13248 (Switzerland), Calculated by Clarke.

Nephrite,

Acmite ?

R". (SiO,)„
Unaccounted for,

No. 3125 (India), Calculated by Clarke,
Nephrite,

Jadeite ?

(Si0 3 ) 3J

Excess water,

No, 13118 (New Zealand), Calculated by Clarke,

100,45

Nephrite,

89.52

A1 Na Si 3 0„

2.35

R \ (SIO a ) aJ

8.28

Excess water,

,39

100.54

Calculated by
Nephrite,

Clarke.

89.02

J ad cite,

7.36

R w . (Si0 3 ) s ,

3.41

99,79

Calculated by
Nephrite,

Clarke.

88.20

Jadeite,

7.56

R 3 Ca Si0 6 ,

2.74

Excess water,

1.30

99.80

Calculated by
Nephrite,

Clarke.

86.89

Jadeite,

2.02

R-'JSiO,),,

10,45

Excess water,

1,51

100,87

192

JADE AS A MINERAL.

No. 3156 (China),

Calculated by Clarke.
Nephrite,

R" Na Si a C>„

Excess water,

86. 70
11.81
1.51

100,02

No. 13233 (Switzerland), Calculated by Penfield.

Nephrite, 86.15

Glaucophane and riebeckite, 13.65

.92

No, 3148 (China),

No, 13246 (Siberia),

Unaccounted for,

Calculated by Clarke.
Nephrite,

Jadeite,

Ac mite ?

Excess water,

Calculated by Clarke,
Nephrite,

100.72

85.87

10,70

2.49

1.43

100.49

85.86

A1 Na St ? O rt (Glaucophane?), 3.32
R"' 5 Ca SiG c , 10.30

Excess FeXb, .16

No, 13095 (China),

Calculated by Cl a ike.
Nephrite,

Jadeite ?

Acmite ?

Excess water,

No. 13030 (New Zealand), Calculated by Penfield.

Nephrite,

Riebeckite,

Glaucophane,
Unaccounted for,

99.64

85.51

0.26

3.78

1.01

99.56

84. 96
4.62
9,54
,64

99.76

JADE AS A MINERAL.

193

No. 13088 (New Zealand), Calculated by Clarke.

Nephrite,

It ' Na Si a O (l
Excess water.

No. 13006 (New Zealand), Calculated by Clarke.

Nephrite,

R"t Oiox

84.23

14.09
1.41

100.33

83.10
11.47

A1 R Si a O a (Glaucophane?), 4.44
Excess water, 1.41

No. 3246 (China), Calculated by Clarke.

Nephrite,

R* R ' Si,0„

Excess water,

100.42

81.01

16.36

2.58

100,55

No. 13211 (Siberia), Calculated by Fenfi eld*

Nephrite, 81.34

Riebeckite, Na a Fe a Si 4 O ia 14,41
Glauctfpbane, Na s AI a Si 4 0 13 4.08
Unaccounted lor, .69

No. 18268 (China), Calculated by Clarke.

Nephrite,

Jadeite,

Ac mite.

Excess water,

No. 13008 (China), Calculated by Clarke,

Nephrite,

Jadeite,

Al s Ca SiO s ,

Excess water.

100.52

80.90

12.44

5.43

1.35

100.12

79.97

14.66

4.23

1.94

100.80

(China),

13210 (Silesia),

Nephrite,

78.14

R ' Na .Si A,

22. 22

Excess water,

.32

100.68

Calculated by Clarke.

Nephrite,

77.34

R" R' si A>

16.57

Ca SiO s ,

5.87

Excess water,

LOO

100.78

lia), Calculated by Clarke.

Nephrite,

75. 76

Serpentine ?

11.32

R ' (NaK) SkO c ,

9.05

Un accounted for.

3.16

99.29

Calculated by Clarke.

Nephrite,

69.87

Serpentine ?

21.80

Jadeite ?

7.15

Unaccounted for.

.71

99.53

Ca I c u 1 a ted by C 1 ar k e ,

Nephrite,

62.81

A! Na Si a O E ,

23. 45

Fe Na Si/),,

9.29

Unaccounted for,

4.65

100.20

1), Calculated by Fen field.

J a d e i ted ike mi nem 1 ,

18.69

Diopside, Ca Mg Si s O e ,

80.26

Water,

.65

99.60

Ssl tr

JADE AS A MINERAL.

No, 13005 (Switzerland), Calculated by Pen field.

NaAl(SiO f ) a ) 10,07

NaFo(SiO a ) s y Grlaucophane, 93.18
(MgCa) Si0 3 j 13.68

Epidote, HCa 2 Al 3 Si 3 O sa 39.18

Quartz, 4.17

100.18

Professor Clarke remarks in regard to these reductions
that the nephrite molecule always reduces to the general
formula R ff SiO a , when W — Ca, Mg, Fe, or Mu. In typi-
cal nephrite it approximates to CaSio* + 3MgSi0 3 , or Ca
Mg,(SiO s X; the Fe and Mu replacing a part of the Mg.
H 21 K 3 , and Na s may also replace Mg to some extent, but the
Ca is more commonly constant. Variations occur in the
reductions which may be due to error in the iron deter-
minations ; and in other cases traces of pyroxene remain,
with the ratio more nearly Ca : Mg :: 1 : 1 ; as in diop-
side, CaMg(SiO s ) 5 .

When Iddings states that jadeite or its equivalent is
present in a nephrite, jadeite andacmite are stated as such.
When no definite statement is made, a formula is given
winch may indicate either jadeite, acini te, glaucophane, or
riebeckifce molecules ; and formulae are stated as follows :

A1 Nil Si 3 <V

Fe Na Si £ O a .

A1 (NaK) Si 2 0 6 , or A1 R' Sl s O e .

Fe (NaK) Si 3 0 6 , or Fe R f Si 2 O fl ,

R" Na 8i,O fl .

IV K Si £ b 6 , etc.,

according to the exigencies of the case. All of these are
covered by the one general formula IV R' Si 3 O 0 , which is
sometimes employed.

When alkalies are in excess of alumina and ferric oxide,
they are treated as part of the nephrite molecule. When
Al a O a and Fe £ O a are in excess, two alternatives are pre-
sented. First, if the total oxygen of the analysis is greater
than in the ratio SiO a , it is treated as part of the molecule
(AI Fe) 3 Ca SiO e , or R" 3 Ca Si0 6 : which is mentioned in the

196

JADE AS A MINERAL.

paper by Clarke, introducing the chemical section of this
work. Secondly, when the silicon-oxygen ratio is normal,
that is, 1 : 3, the excess of A1 and Fe is regarded as forming
the molecule E,"' s (SiO s )„ which might be considered as a
replacement in the nephrite, and equivalent partly to bab-
ingtonite among the pyoxenes, and arfvedsonite among the
amphiboles. In two or three cases the analyses indicate
serpentine as an impurity, which is so stated.

In the jadeites Pen field has shown that Ca, Fe, or Mg,
may replace Na or K ; and he computes analyses with
small amounts of these elements included. Clarke divided
the computation in such cases, giving normal jadeite as
proportional to the alkalies alone. The remaining portion,
Al, (CaMgFe) (SiO,)„ the replacement which Penheld lias
proved, Clarke calls ^?sew^o-jadeite. The sum of the nor-
mal and the pseudo-jadeite gives the jadeite of Peniield’s
calculations.

iv y^g£^_..wrrv^ a&t /.) m

INCLUSIONS.

Under this head it is proposed to notice briefly the
various minerals which have been found in intimate
association with jadeite or nephrite. They may be
roughly grouped into two classes :

First — Those which occur in relatively small crystals
or patches embedded in jade, and by reason of their
sharply defined contrast in color or form are readily
visible to the naked eye,

Segondf *— Those which occur intimately intermingled
with the jade, forming an essential part of its mass, and
being of the same color and appearance, are recognizable
as foreign material only by chemical or microscopic study.

To the first of these may be assigned the following
minerals: Chromite, magnetite, garnet, feldspar, pyrite,
rutile, limonifce, manganese oxide, mica, and several other
undetermined impurities.

Chromite or magnetite is by far the most common im-
purity to be noted in jade. The distinction between them
is not generally visible, since both occur in black opaque
octahedrons, generally of minute size, and it is necessary
in order to their positive distinction to prepare a thin
microscopic section. The chromium may then be readily
determined, as it is slightly translucent in thin sections
and shows a dark brown color in microscopic sections,
whereas magnetite is always black and opaque* This
class of inclusions is generally too small in percentage to
produce any effect except in some cases a change of color
of the mass. Again, if a dark crystalline speck is sur-
rounded by a zone of green brighter than the rest of the
specimen, it is safe to conclude that the coloring of the
green is chromium, derived from the inclusion, which is,
therefore, undoubtedly chromite. Both these minerals
are very noticeable in translucent jade, as their color is

197

198

JADE AS A MINERAL.

dark and their sharp form is readily noticeable in a trans-
lucent mass. When the inclusions are present in a suffi-
cient number in white jade, they frequently give it a
grayish tint.

In sufficient number they may even impart a positive
black to the mass.

Pyrite, rutile, garnet, feldspar, and mica all occur as
inclusions discernible by the naked eye.

Black oxide of manganese is frequently present in both
the jade minerals, chielly as a staining material, and some-
times in such quantity as to impart a positively black color.
It also occurs in thin coatings on the walls of cracks or
crevices, and again as dendritic markings.

Limonite appears in a number of specimens, perhaps
more especially among the artistic pieces, as a staining,
generally the result of weathering, and is considered by
the Chinese to heighten the effect.

In addition to the inclusions already described, which
are perceptible to the naked eye, a large number of
minerals exist in minute crystals, and have been deter-
mined by microscopic study of jade itself. The following
species have been determined by Arzruni, Iddings, and
others as occurring in jade :

In addition to these, Arzruni reports graphite as occur-
ring in nephrite.

The second class of inclusions in which the foreign
mineral plays a more important part in the make-up of
the mass, contains the following species : Analcite, albite,

Andalusite,

Cordierite,

Epidote,

Garnet,

Limonite,

Muscovite,

Olivine,

Perovskite with Leucoxene.

Titanite,

Tourmaline,

Zircon.

Quartz,

Untile,

Talc,

JADE AS A MINERAL*

nepkeline, plagioclase, feldspar, zoisite (klinozoisite) and
diopside. All these are of peculiar interest from the fact
that they are found with jadeite and not with nephrite*
The only mineral reported as chemically intermixed with
nephrite is doubtful serpentine.

The important part that such included minerals play in
jade may be seen in four results : 1st, They affect the
color of the mass in which they are included, giving it a
tint, a mottled appearance, or in some instances a decided
color* 2d. They are likely to affect the specific gravity
of the mass either by lowering it, as in the case of albite
feldspar, or by raising it, as in the case of magnetite and
chromite. 3d* They are likely to affect the apparent
chemical composition of the mass by their intimate
mechanical mixture. 4th. They may likewise, at times,
affect the hardness of the mixture*

This class of inclusions may equal or exceed the amount
of the jadeite material in the rock, with the changes that
may be expected in the lowering of the hardness, tough-
ness, or specific gravity, and in the case of nepheline and
analcite, rendering the mass more susceptible to the
attack of weathering agencies.

The effect upon the physical and chemical character of
jade produced by the presence of the inclusions above
mentioned will depend, of course, upon the amount and
and character of the inclusions.

ON THE ORIGIN OP JADEITE.

BY L. V, riRSSON.

INTRODUCTORY.

The very fact, so well known, that the original sources
of jadeite have either been unknown or veiled in mystery,
in spite of its use and commercial value through such an
immense period of time, implies at the very outset that
geological observations and knowledge concerning its
mode of occurrence and the origin of the material must be
still more defective. We know, indeed, that it lias been
largely gathered in the shape of transported boulders; and
the study of the material has led petrographers to classify
jade as belonging to the crystalline schists. Anything
beyond this, with the exception to be presently noted,
which is of any real value in this connection has not come
to the writer’s knowledge, and it would be of little interest
or value to discuss the question from the historical side.

OCCURRENCES IN BURMA AND “ TIBET.”

The occurrence which lias been best studied is that at
Tarnmaw in Upper Burma. As this is described elsewhere
in this volume, in the article on the Localities and Geo-
logical Occurrence of Jade, the reader must be referred to
that section for details. It must here suffice to say that
the observations of Noetling and Bauer show that the
jadeite is either igneous or metamorphic in character, the
results of the careful petrographical examination of Bauer
favoring the latter view. The jadeite is associated with
serpentine, and glaucophane schist and albitic rocks occur
in the vicinity.

The jadeite said to come from Tibet, described by Bauer,
has been incorporated also in the same section, and it need

200

JADE AS A MINERAL.

201

only be said here that, while it resembles in general that
of Taramaw, it contains considerable neph elite and some
albite. Bauer calls attention to the anomaly of the pres-
ence of neph elite as a component of a rock belonging to
the crystalline schists, since heretofore it has been found
only as a component of igneous rocks. The writer hopes
to elucidate in the following pages the meaning of this
apparent anomaly.*

It may also be mentioned that some specimens of jadeite
in the Bishop Collection (Nos. 13215, 3126, 3127, 13242)
contain small amounts of albite and analcite.

JADEITE CONSIDERED AS A ROCK.

It is clearly evident, not only from the occurrence at
Tam maw described elsewhere, but from its distribution
in a number of localities and the size of the masses in
which it is found, that jadeite must be considered as a
rock, and a definite kind of rock, not some chance forma-
tion of a mineral on a considerable scale in a single
locality by a peculiar combination of circumstances not
liable to obtain elsewhere. It appears to be a well-charac-
terized variety of rock produced by the same laws which
govern the formation of other rocks of similar type, and
one the number of whose occurrences may be expected
to increase as the geological exploration of the world goes
on. This position it appears to the writer is so self-evi-
dent that it needs no further argument, it is also the one
generally assumed.

It may then fairly be asked if jadeite in itself, by its
properties, structure, mineral and chemical composition,
offers evidences which, interpreted by the aid of our
present knowledge of petrology, are sufficient to indicate
its origin and petrographic position. The writer believes
that this question can be answered in the affirmative, and
proposes to show the reasons for so believing.

CHEMICAL COMPOSITION.

The first and perhaps the most important question which
can be asked is whether the chemical composition of jadeite
*Cf. Artur. Jour. Sci. (4). Vol. I, p. 401. 1896.

202

JADE AS A MINERAL.

as a rock, en masse, offers any evidence. If we consider
jadeite Na A1 (SiO s ) a as a mineral alone, this requires in
theory

SiO a . SU.4

AljOa, 25.3
Na s O, 15.4

100.0

As a matter of fact, however, jadeite, even in the whitest
and simplest varieties, almost never has a pure composition,
but contains in addition lime, iron, and magnesia, some-
times in considerable amounts, together with small quanti-
ties of potash and traces of water, as may be seen from the
appended table of analyses, and from the tables given else-
where in this volume.

Analyses of Jadeite and Phonolite.

III

3248

13200B

13215

13336

SiO a ,

57.99

58.51

60.52

53*80

58,98

53,95

58.48

57*60

58.41

58.58

Al a Ga,

met

I9.GE3

39-05

2-3.59

20,54

21,96

23.57

25*75

24,64

23,71

Ft! a O],

2,84

3.43

4.22

3*57

3,65

,76

1*68

*67

,51

FeO,

... .

.... *

1*88

.48

.** *

,24

MgO,

3,33

*31

,19

*87

*11

7*17

1,33

.13

1.24

1*35

CM),

4.89

1,53

.59

2,26

.67

2*42

.58

1*43

1,67

Na 3 0,

9.42

10,04

10*63

9.05

9.95

9*37

10.33

13.31

12.76

13.80

KM),

1.50

4,71

3,50

4*77

5.31

3.70

3.09

2.20

0*58

trace

ILO t

1.00

*04

1*50

,97

,16

.25

1*19

,10

I — Worked jade from France, humour, Bull. Soc.
Min., 1881, IV., 157.

II — Phonolite, Mte. Miaune, Velay, Emmons,
Inaug. Biss., Leipzig, 1874, p. 20.

III — Phonolite-obsidian, Teneriffe, Fritschand Reiss,

1868, p. 387.

IV — Phonolite, St. Thiago, Cape Verde Is., Doelter,

Vulkane der Cap Verden, 1882, p. 90.

V — Phonolite, Cripple Creek, Colo., W. F. Hille-
brand, U. S. (r. S. Bull., 148, p. 161.

VI — Unworked jade, Burma, Damon r, loc. cit., 1S81.
3248 — Analysis by Walden of worked jadeite from
China.

13206B — Analysis by Walden of worked jadeite from
China.

JADK AS A MINERAL.

203

13215 — Analysis by Walden of fragment of boulder
froin Burma.

13336 — Analysis by Foote of fragment of boulder from
Burma.

Note. — Id these analyses only the important elements are given for compari-
son ; the traces of various metals and buses are omitted as unimportant, and in
consequence no summation is shown.

It is clear from what lias been quoted from Noetling’s
description that at Tammaw the jadeite must be either a
metamorphic rock, a member of the crystalline schists, or
else i t must be igneous. And this of course must be true
of all jade if we consider it a rook, as its appearance and
crystalline character at once exhibit.

If we regard it as a member of the crystalline schists, a
metamorphic rock, we must still again if possible endeavor
to account for its origin, for these rocks must be also of
igneous or aqueous formation originally, unless some of
them in places be excepted, as has been done by some
geologists, because they are held to be a portion of the
earth’s original cooling crust. Now we know of no sedi-
ments, nor indeed any possible combination of sedi-
ments, which could occur that having been metamorphosed
would give us jadeite. A possible mixture of salt, sand,
and clay well mixed would have approximately the chemi-
cal composition, but where conditions were such that salt
could deposit, sand certainly could not. It seems not
unreasonable to say that the source of the material forming
jadeite could not have been of aqueous deposition.

There remains then to consider whether the material may
not have been of igneous origin, and when we compare
analyses of jadeite with those of igneous rocks, we see at
once that it has the composition of the nephelito-syeniie
group as shown by the comparison of analyses in the table
given above. It will be seen that there is a striking
agreement between the two groups of rocks, and that t lie
analyses from one group might with ease pass muster in the
other. There is one point of general difference however,
and that is the small amount of potash shown in the jade
analyses. It is not wanting, however, and may exist in

204

JADE AS A MINERAL.

considerable quantity as shown in 3248, 13206B, and in No.
I. This is not, however, any valid argument against the
material being of igneous origin, for while potash and soda
are usually found in considerable proportion relative to
each other in igneous rocks, this is not necessarily so, and
we have actual instances of undoubted igneous rocks, as in
dikes and lava ilows, showing so great an excess of one
alkali as to practically exclude the other. Instances may
be seen in the following examples taken from the literature.

I 2 3456 7 B

Na,0, 1.81 1.39 .90 3.37 7.62 4.21 5.34 17.29

K,0, 13.91 11.76 7.99 10.06 .10 .17 .18 3.51

The first three of these are leuci tic lavas from the Leucite
Hills in Wyoming ; the fourth a feldspathic dike from the
Highwood Mts. of Montana ; the fifth an aplite dike from
Mariposa, Cal.; the sixth diabase, Conn. Valley, Mass.; the
seventh porphyritic amphibolite, New Salem, Mass. ; and
the eighth, urtite from Kola. (The first seven from Bull.
148, U. S. Gfeol. Surv., the eighth from Ramsay, Geol. Fore.
Stockholm Fork, 1896, Bd. 18, p. 462.) They have been
selected as examples, and numbers of others equally strik-
ing might be given in addition, but these are sufficient to
show the point involved. The composition of jadeite is
precisely that ofaphonolite in which the potash is very low
or lacking.* The analyses vary from one another in a
slight degree, but they all lie within the same limits.

That jadeite has the essential composition of a plionolite
is shown most strikingly by the chemical equation :

Na A1 SiO, + Na A1 Si a O s = 2Na A1 (SiO,),

Neplielite + Albite

— — ttt — — = Jadeite.

Plionolite

That is to say that a soda feldspar and neplielite, the chief
constituents of a plionolite, if united would form jadeite.
Clarke, f in discussing the structural formulae of minerals
of the pyroxene group like jadeite calls attention to the

* Rosenbusch briefly remarks that jarieite has the composition of a nephe-
lite -syenite magma. MemenU der Qe$teimlehre % p. oOS.

| Constitution of tht silicates. Bull. U, S. Geol. Surv. No, 125, p. 87.

JADE AS A MINERAL*

fact that on alteration spodumene splits up into feldspar
and eucryptite, the latter a lithia nephelite, while leucite,
which has a similar empirical formula, divides into ortho-
clase and nephelite, soda replacing part of the alkali in
both cases. From this Clarke argues that the real struc-
tural formula of spodumene is not that of a simple meta-
silicate, R SiO a [Li A! (SiO a ) a ], but Ai fl {Si a O a ) t (SiOJ 3 Li fl ,
which expresses the relations mentioned above* Following
out this line of reasoning then, jadeite, also a member of the
pyroxene group and closely related to spodumene, would
not have the simple empirical formula Na A1 (SiO ( ) 3 , but the
one Al^SbOJ^SiO^Na^ and theoretically it is merely an
addition product of the albite and nephelite. Such addi-
tion products might readily be formed if chemical action
was taking place under great pressure such as is developed
under dynamo-metamorpMc processes, since in that case
there is a tendency to form denser molecules of higher
specific gravity; thus one molecule of albite, sp. gr. 2.62,
and one molecule of nephelite, 2.60, could unite to form one
molecule of jadeite, 3,33.

Associated minerals and structure .

In this connection the jadeite from Tibet described by
Bauer Is most significant* Here it is accompanied by
nephelite and feldspar. Now nephelite is known, so far,
to occur only as a product of the cooling of a molten
magma in igneous rocks, and it is indeed difficult to
imagine how the material of which it is composed could
originate in any o ther way* Certainly not as a sediment.
The occurrence of this mineral in the jadeite from Tibet
points most strongly towards the igneous origin of the
material in which it occurs, and the presence of the feld-
spar would lend additional value to this idea*

Similar remarks and conclusions apply to those speci-
mens of jadeite in the Bishop Collection, in which, as has
been mentioned, anal cite occurs. This mineral, a hydrous
metasilicate of soda and alumina, occurs commonly as a
secondary product resulting from the alteration of minerals
rich in soda in the igneous rocks, but it has also been

206

.JADE AS A MINERAL.

shown recently to be a primary constituent of certain dike-
forming igneous rocks. The mode of its occurrence as
described by Iddings would indicate that it is here prob-
ably either a primary constituent, or that it is the result
of the decomposition of nephelite or albite, indicating an
igneous origin for the rock in either case. There is also a
possibility that it is derived from the jadeite itself, though
the description would seem to preclude this.

On the other hand, certain facts in this connection must
also be considered. Jadeite, the mineral, from its chemi-
cal composition, is a pyroxene which a priori might be con-
sidered extremely likely to occur in alkaline igneous rocks
rich in soda. As a matter of fact, not a single instance of
this, so far as is known to the writer lias been recorded.
Moreover, the broken cataclastic structure of the mineral,
and in fact the whole structure of the rock, so carefully
described by Bauer, points most clearly to a type origi-
nating from metamorphic processes. The associated rocks
found with the jadeite in the region in Upper Burma, are
ati albite hornblende schist and a glaucophane schist, both
of them rocks rich in soda and metamorphic in type. Both
facts are significant.

Summary and Conclusions.

Briefly summarized we have then the following facts to
deal with. The evidence of the only place where jadeite
has been well studied in place by a competent geologist
does not afford a definite conclusion as to the origin of the
rock ; it may be igneous, or it may be metamorphic, the
microscope evidence tending to confirm the second conclu-
sion. The composition of jadeite considered as a rock is
that of an igneous one and a member of the nephelite-
syenite group, characterized by the absence of, or small
amount of potash it contains. In one occurrence nephelite
is found in the jadeite and in others analcite. The chemi-
cal composition of jadeite precludes the material from
having an origin by aqueous deposition, it must be igneous.
On the other hand, jadeite lias not been found as a com-
ponent of evidently unaltered igneous rocks, though the

JADE AS A MINERAL.

207

chemical composition of some of them might favor its
formation ; the structure of jadeite is that of the crystal-
line schists, and the rocks associated with it are members
of that family. All these facts point to only one possible
conclusion. Jadeite is a metamorphosed igneous rock, a
member of the phonolite family. The whiter varieties are
probably metamorphosed dikes of the aplitic, leucocratic*
type, belonging in this family and the darker green types
those containing more iron-bearing dark silicates like the
tinguaites.

And it may he suggested here that the non-appearance
of rocks of the phonolite families as such among the crys-
talline schists may be brought into relation with the occur-
rence of jadeites, albite, and glaucophane schists and other
types rich in alkalies, whose homes are in the metamorpliic
complexes.

* Brftgger, Das Qanggefolge ties Laurdalits, 1808, p. 204.

THE RELATION OF JADEITE AND NEPHRITE.

BY J, F, ID DINGS,

The origin of jadeite has already been discussed in the
preceding section, by Professor L. V. Pirsson, who shows
that the available evidence is in favor of the view that
jadeite is not an unaltered igneous rock, but that it is
probably the result of the metamorphism of an original
igneous rock of the nephelite-syenite-phonolite family.
As the evidence is presented very fully by him, it is
unnecessary here to do more than refer to his article, with
the conclusions of which I agree in the main,

I need only add that the origin or formation of jadeite
rocks will remain in doubt until they have been found in
place in such a manner that their outward relations to the
associated rocks may be discovered. For though they
may be intimately associated with crystalline schists, and
may exhibit schistosity in part, they may, however, have
been originally igneous intrusions with the mineral ogical
composition of jadeite rocks, the structure of which has
been subsequently somewhat modified by dynamic
processes.

Whatever may have been the origin of jadeite-rock, it
has undergone since its formation various degrees of
metamorphism, which has produced either slight modifica-
tions of the original texture of the rock or has altered it
more or less completely both in texture and in chemical
composition. By metamorphism is understood any change
that may take place in a rock by which it may be changed
into a coherent solid mass differing in some respect from
the original rock. In many cases the resulting rock is
harder and more crystalline than that from which it was
formed, but this is not universally the case, and no simple
definition of metamorphism can be framed unless we adhere

208

.JADE AS A MINERAL.

209

to the etymology of the word and state that it is a change
in the form of the rock.

The change may be limited to one of its characters or
may affect several or all of them. It may operate in one
direction or in a reverse one. Thus metamorphism may
modify the form of the minerals without producing any
chemical differences in them, as when a rock composed of
a single kind of mineral has the crystals of the mineral
reduced in size by crushing. They may by other meta*
morphic processes be enlarged. The first process would
tend to make the rock less crystalline, the second to make
it more crystalline.

While it is possible for single or simple processes of meta-
morpliism to affect a rock without the accompaniment of
other processes, and while it may be desirable in the dis-
cussion of such actions to consider them separately, it
seldom happens that in actual fact any one force or agency
of alteration has acted independently of others. More
often several have co-operated to produce the changes that
have taken place.

In the case of the rocks grouped under the general term
jade, which with few exceptions consist of jadeite or
nephrite, the question of metamorphism has a special
bearing on the origin of one of these component minerals,
namely nephrite, and must also be called into account to
explain the texture exhibited by the jadeite rocks.

It is well known that the simple effect of dynamical
forces tending to compress or distort a mass of crystals is
to set up molecular stresses, which result in molecular
strains within the individual crystals or which produce
rupture and fragmentation. The latter shows itself under
the microscope by the mingling of comparatively large
crystals with small ones in such a manner as to indicate
that the small particles are fragments of larger crystals.
The small grains occur in streaks along cracks, or act as a
cement or matrix for the larger grains. This is sometimes
called cataelastic structure, and is to be seen in thin
sections: 3248, 13192D, 13243, 13255. Crushing may be
accompanied by other alteration, as in the cases just

210

JADE AS A MINERAL*

mentioned. The minute particles are still jadeite and the
whole mass is a coherent rock held together by the
adhesion of the component crystals. Similar meta-
morphism lias been produced in the laboratory by Profes-
sor Adams of Montreal, by means of simple pressure.

The effects of molecular strains which may not have led
to the production of visible fractures are shown by the
optical behavior of the strained crystals when examined
between crossed meals. The results may be molecular
displacement, producing a mottling of the interference
color exhibited by a thin section of the crystal so affected.
This may be more or less pronounced, varying from the
faintest suggestion of mottling to one in which the mottling
resembles mosaic work, with a distinct demarcation be-
tween each piece, where an actual fracturing of the crystals
may have taken place.

In other cases the molecular displacement may cause the
molecules to shift their position along certain planes in
the crystal, producing layers or laminae in twinned position
with respect to the original crystal. In pyroxene one such
plane is parallel to the basal pinacoid, and crystals of pyr-
oxene subjected to this kind of molecular strain exhibit a
more or less distinct banding of the interference color
shown by thin sections when observed between crossed
nicols. Examples of both of these kinds of molecular! y
strained jadeite may be seen in thin section, 13193D. The
material is still jadeite, but the original adjustment of the
crystal molecules has been altered. Such changes as those
already illustrated by the jadeite sections may be called
simple dynamical metamorphism.

It has been found that when crystals are in a state of
molecular strain they are more susceptible to chemical and
crystalline alteration, if agencies capable of promoting
such changes are at hand. The same is true when the
crystal is in fine particles which expose greater surface to
attacking agencies, such as gases and liquids, than larger
fragments do. It follows from this that rocks subjected to
dynamical forces sufficient to produce metamorphism are
the more easily altered by chemical processes, the com-

JADE AS A MINERAL*

211

monesfc of which is the interaction of elements in adjacent
crystals of dissimilar minerals, or of those in adjacent
crystals and liquids which may penetrate the mass* These
liquids may act as agents to promote the mobility of the
molecules of adjoining crystals, by solution, or may be the
vehicle by which elements may be transferred from one
rock to another.

It frequently happens that rocks exhibiting dynamical
me tarn or ph ism in the form of crushing and shearing or
dragging also show chemical metaphorism, the chemical
composition of the original rock being changed to a
greater or less extent and a new crystallization taking
place, that is, new minerals forming at the expense of
those originally present.

Of the transformations of this kind commonly met with
in rocks the change of pyroxene into amphibole is one
of the most frequent. The close chemical and crystal-
lographic relationship between these two groups of
minerals in part may account for the frequency of this
transformation. The probably greater complexity of the
pyroxene molecule, to which Professor Clarke has called
attention in another section of this work, may account for
the fact that the alteration is usually from pyroxene to
amphibole* In every such change there is necessary a
chemical displacement, for the elements do not occur in
the same proportions in the two groups of minerals. The
extent of this chemical metamorphism varies with
attendant conditions, and may be considerable* In the
case of some minerals the displacement has gone to the
extent of replacing all the elements originally present by
others totally unlike them* This is illustrated by
paramorphs of the greatest variety.

The microscopical and chemical investigation of the
specimens in this Collection demonstrate clearly that
jadeite is commonly changed into aggregations of minute
amphiboles — nephrite— subsequent to, or accompanying,
dynamic metamorphism, and that the chemical change
involved the displacement of aluminium and sodium by
magnesium, calcium, and iron. Chemical metamorphism

212

JADE AS A MINERAL.

as radical as this may be found in the transformation of
albite and orthoclase into talc or chlorite.

The evidences of dynamical and chemical metamorphism
in the jades of this Collection have been described in
detail in another place. They may be summarized briefly
as follows : In some specimens of jadeite, a cataclastic
structure has been developed, in others this structure
together with mottlings of the interference colors and
banding due to secondary lamellar twinning; in some
jadeite specimens there are bladed crystals of amphibole ;
in specimens of nephrite there are fragments of jadeite;
in some nephrites the amphibole crystals are arranged in
patches corresponding to grains of jadeite in the jadeite
specimens ; this character gradually disappears in nephrite
with more and more pronounced fibrous or laminated
structure.

Prom these phenomena it may be concluded that jadeite
is sometimes metamorphosed into nephrite ; conversely
that nephrite is sometimes metamorphosed jadeite. But
it does not necessarily follow that all nephrite is meta-
morphosed jadeite, or that the only product of the meta-
morphism of jadeite is nephrite. It may be added that so
far as the Collection of jades studied is concerned no
other changes have been observed. From which it may
be concluded that this relationship between jadeite and
nephrite is the normal one.

LOCALITIES ANI) GEOLOGICAL OCCURRENCE OF

JADE.

IiY IIENKY S. WASHINGTON.

Introductory. Discussion of the localities and occur-
rence of jade (including jadeite and nephrite) is of interest
from two points of view. From the geological and min-
eralogical it is of great importance as furnishing us with
facts which may elucidate tile problem of the origin of the
rock ; from the archaeological it is of equal importance as
bearing on such questions as ancient lines of trade and
intercommunication, and the spread of customs and migra-
tion of races.

We are met at the outset of such an investigation by
the difficulty of lack of sufficient data. Although jade
objects are widespread (within certain limits), and their
number is very considerable, and though the use of this
material goes back to the Stone Age, yet less than a dozen
localities are known where the material occurs in situ , and
a few more where it is found as rough blocks which have
been transported from their original situations by river or
glacial action. This state of affairs is somewhat remark-
able in view of the peculiar qualities of jade — its toughness
and composition, which offer great resistance to destruc-
tion by meteoric and other agencies, and its often striking
coloration which, one might expect, would lead to its easy
discovery.

For the purposes of the present paper it will be well to
divide the occurrences into four groups, fundamentally
distinct in character, which, in the order of their usefulness
and importance, are as follows :

1. Occurrences of jade in situ,

2. Occurrences of jade as transported blocks.

813

214

JADE AS A MINERAL.

3. Occurrences of jade as worked objects, generally of

unknown exact ultimate provenance,

4. Localities mentioned by various authorities, but of

very uncertain character.

In such a division we start with geological data which
are fairly safe and well established, and where the condi-
tio ns of occurrence are more or less well known, through
occurrences where the original conditions are to a large
extent inferential, and filially end with groups where the
origin is hypothetical and highly uncertain.

For the sake of convenience, in the following description,
the first two groups will be treated together to a great ex-
tent, and also here the occurrences of jadeite and nephrite
will be mentioned indiscriminate! 3% though in the subse-
quent discussion the two will be sharply discriminated.

BURMA.

It seems appropriate to begin with this locality, since it
is one of the greatest sources of the material, and is also
one of those which have been the best studied. The
quarries are found in Upper Burma, in the Kachin Coun-
try, near the junction of the Chindwin and Uru rivers, in
about Laf. 25° N. and Lon. 95° E.

The quarries were discovered accidentally by a Yunnan
trader in the thirteenth eentuiy, and several unsuccessful
expeditions were sent out from Yunnan in that and the
succeeding centuries. The attempts were abandoned till
1784, when a trade was opened between China and Burma,
and a regular supply of the stone was carried into Yunnan.
Since 1806 Mogaung has been the headquarters of the jade
trade in Burma.

Apparently the first * notice of this locality by a Euro-
pean is that of Capt. Hammy, t who obtained in Mogaung
several pieces of a green mineral called by the Burmese
u Kyouk-tsein ” and by the Chinese ‘ { Yueesh. >5 $ This
was considered b\ r Han nay to be “ Nephrite.”

+ Cf , Noetling, op. eft. infra. „ p. 3.

f Harm ay. Jour , As. Soc . Bengal, VI. pp. 265 IT., 1837.

% This is no doubt a transcriber's error for Chinese ytl-she, or yushih, ** jade-
stone.” The Burmese name for the mineral is kyouk-sein, — Note by the, Editor.

JADE AS A MINERAL.

215

The next European writer to mention the locality, and,
according to Noetllng, the first to visit it, was Dr. Griffith,*
who considered the rock to be serpentine,

Capt. Yulef speaks of the locality, but (according to
Woetling) apparently bases Ids remarks on the observations
of the two preceding writers.

The quarries are next described by Dr. J. Anderson, ;{;
but Ins account is short, and it does not appear that he
himself visited the locality.

In 1888 Mr, W. Warty, § political officer at Bhamo,
made an extensive report on tire jade mines of Mogaung.
It deals chiefly with the history of the quarries, t lie
methods of mining, and the question of revenue, but the
following may be quoted.

The jade-producing country is partly enclosed by the
Chindwin and Urn rivers, and lies between the twenty' fifth
and twenty-sixth parallels of latitude. Jade is also found
at Mawhun in the Myadaung district, and the most cele-
brated of all jade deposits is reported to be a large cliff
overhanging the Chindwin, or a branch of that river, and
distant eight or nine days" journey from the confluence of
the Urn and Chindwin, Of this cliff, called by the
Chinese traders Nantelung,[| nothing is reall}^ known, as no
traders have gone there for at least twenty years. Within
the jade tract described above, however, small quantities
have been found at many places, and abandoned quarries
are numerous. The last old quarry is Sanka, situated
seventy miles north-west of Mogaung. The largest quar-
ries now being worked are To mo, Pangmo, Ikn, Maikenmo,
and Mienmo ; they are distant about eight miles from
Sanka. These mines are situated in the country of the

* Griffith. Journal of Travels in Assam, Burma, Bulan, etc. Calcutta,
1847, p. 182,

f Yule. Narrative of the Mission to the Court of Am , London , 1858, p. 146.

t Report on the Expedition, to Western Yunnan vid Bhamo . Calcutta, 1871, p.
66 .

% Report on the Administration of Burma for 1887-88. Rangoon, 1888, p.
,59. Abstract in Watt, Diet, of the Earn. Prod, of India, 1890, IV., pp. 586 fL

|| Properly Ean-te-litu/, meaning 14 mountain -ridge difficult of access/'— Note
by the Editor.

216

JADE AS A MINERAL,

Merip Kachins. The largest mine is about fifty yards
long, forty broad, and twenty feet deep. The season for
jade operations begins in November and lasts until May,
The most productive quarries are generally flooded, and
the labor of quarrying is much increased thereby. In
February and March, when the floor of the pit can be kept
dry for a few hours by baling, immense fires are lighted at
the base of the stone, A careful watcli is then kept in a
tremendous heat to detect the first signs of splitting.
When these occur the Kuchins attack the stone with pick-
axes and hammers, or detach portions by hauling or by
levers inserted in the cracks. The heat is almost insup-
portable, the labor severe, and the mortality among the
workers is high,”

The last and by far the best work which has been done
on the locality is that by Dr, Fritz Noetling* and Dr, Max
Bauer, f The former visited the locality and describes it
geologically. The latter examined petrographically the
material brought back by Noetling,

From Noetling’ s description the following is quoted :
t£ As far as our present knowledge goes the occurrence of
jadeite in Upper Burma is confined to a small spot on the
upper course of the Uru river. It cannot be told at pres-
ent whether it occurs elsewhere, though in my opinion this
is not improbable, Jadeite pebbles are said to have been
found in the alluvium of the Irrawadi above Myitkyina.

. . . The following remarks therefore are confined to the
occurrence on the Urn* As the centre of the jade-produc-
ing district one can take the village of Tam maw, which
lies in about 25 Q 44' N. Lat. and 96° 14 E, Long. It must
be remarked that Tamrnaw is not a permanent settlement,
but is abandoned the workmen during the rainy season.
A permanent place of residence is the Kacli in village of
Sanka, which lies about six mites to the east. Inside this
district the jadeite is obtained in two ways, from the allu-

# Noetling, liec. GeoL Sure, India, XXVI., 1893; also Nm* Jahrb . Min, ,
1896, 1, pp. 1-17. >l;ip on Taf, 1.

f Bauer. Itec. Oeol. Stirv. India, XXVIII. p. 01, 18951 $eu. Jahrb. 1896,
I. pp. 18-51.

JADE AS A MINERAL.

217

vium of the Urn river and from quarries near Turn-
in a \yj 7

The author then describes the general geology of the
country, and shows that crystalline schists, limestones of
probably Carboniferous age, Miocene sedimentaries, allu-
vium, and eruptive rocks occur. Basalts occur along the
Irrawadi to the east and also near Sanka. Serpentine occurs
at two places, at one of which, Tam maw, in connection
with jadeite. This is described as follows :

“The second serpentine occurrence, which is the one
which interests us most here, is situated west of the village
of Sanka, on the top of a plateau, which, as far as known,
consists entirely of Tertiary sandstones. The serpentine
occurs here in the form of a low knoll, which is, however,
visible at present only at the east side of the quarry,
and which apparently passes under the Tertiary strata
toward the east side.

“ Below the serpentine, but separted from it by a crack
which is about half a metre wide and which is lilled with
soft, friable rock, the jadeite occurs, which offers a sharp
contrast to the dark serpentine by its dazzling white
color,

“The quarry operations have opened a pit about 100
metres long and extending from east to west, but the walls
of this have unfortunately fallen down except at the west
side. I could not therefore determine exactly what rock
was in place on the other sides, since outside the excava-
tions an impenetrable thicket made ali investigation
impossible. But according to the inquiries which I made,
the workmen came again upon the dark rock after pene-
trating the jadeite, especially on the west side. One thing
was very plainly evident ; the quarrying moved generally
towards the east, while the floor of the quarry sank gradu-
ally in the same direction. T consider that this goes to
show that the jadeite passes under the serpentine, at least
in this direction. The distinct crevice which, also with an
eastward dip, separates the serpentine and jadeite, and by
which much water reaches the surface, appears to point to
a tectonic disturbance, which implies that the relation

218

JADE AS A MINERAL.

between the serpentine and the jadeite is not as intimate
as it appears to be at first sight.

“Prom these observations the following definite conclu-
sions may be drawn .•

“1. The jadeite crops out below the serpentine, but at
least at one jjlace is separated from it by a crevice.

“2. The serpentine and the accompanying jadeite are
surrounded on all sides by Tertiary sandstone although
no contacts between the two could be observed.

“This occurrence admits of two explanations. The
jadeite and serpentine may have formed at the time of the
deposition of the Tertiary strata, a knoll about which
the Miocene sandstone was deposited. ... Or the ser-
pentine may be of eruptive origin, in which case it
would be of post-Tertiary date. In this case the jadeite
may be either a mass brought up from below by the ser-
pentine, or it may be due to a later eruption of jadeite.”

Between these alternatives Noetling is unable to decide,
but he is inclined to regard the serpentine at any rate as
eruptive, on the ground of other occurrences in Burma.

Bauer’s examination, together with the chemical analyses
of Busz, establish the fact that the jade is a true jadeite.
Bauer also describes the serpentine from this locality,
which shows a somewhat cataclastic structure, and con-
tains considerable (48 per cent.) unaltered olivine. An
albite-hornblende rock and a glaucophane-schist, both from
boulders at the locality, are also described. His conclu-
sions on the geological age and mode of occurrence of the
jadeite and serpentine are of great interest, and are quoted
here in full.

“From the above description of the rocks occurring in
the jadeite mines at Tammaw, viz., the jadeite, the olivine-
serpentine, the albite-hornblende rock, and the amphibole
glaucophane-scliist, we are enabled to form a clear concep-
tion of their nature. Noetling believes that the jadeite
and the serpentine penetrate the surrounding Tertiary
sandstone, while with regard to the relations between the
occurrence of the two other rocks and the jadeite, nothing
is known. Noetling’ s view necessitates the assumption of

JADE AS A MINERAL.

219

an eruption of jadeifce and another of olivine rock, follow-
ing one another ; but the petrological composition of these
rocks is not favorable to such a view, which would include
them among tiie Tertiary eruptive rocks. Judging by the
petrological characters we must consider them as repre-
senting a system of crystalline schists.

44 Now there is no doubt that in former geological times
olivine rocks were produced by volcanic eruption. No-
where, however, have rocks of this nature been found in
beds of such modern date, being according to Noetling not
older than of Miocene age. Wherever Tertiary masses of
olivine are known to occur, as for example the enclosures
in basalt, they are perfectly fresh, and show no signs of
serpentinization. I wish particularly to emphasize this
fact, since the basalt, which I shall presently describe, and
which occurs in close proximity to the jadeite mines, has
no geological connection with the jadeite, but is unques-
tionably an eruptive rock passing through Tertiary strata.
In this basalt the serpentinization of the olivine lias just
begun, but lias not progressed beyond the first stages,
while such a complete alteration as that exhibited in the
above specimens is characteristic of all ancient olivine
rocks — such as palseopikrite — and, as I have already ob-
served. of the crystalline schists.

“To consider the jadelte as an eruptive rock would be
entirely unjustifiable ; for neither in the older, nor yet in
tlie more recent, eruptive rocks has any rock of the nature
of jadeite been found. In Turkistan, however, it lias been
proved to be embedded with nephrite in the crystalline
schists (gneiss and mica-schist), and belongs to that series.

“The other two rocks also offer material proof in favor
of this view, for It Is highly probable that the glaucophane-
schist is one of the crystalline schists. Hitherto, glauco-
phane has been found only in gneissic rocks and mica-
schists, no instance having been recorded of its occurrence
in eruptive rocks, much less of its entirely composing such
rocks. The same holds good for the albite of the albite-
hornblende rock. This mineral frequently occurs as a
component part of the crystalline schists, but hardly of

220

JADE AS A MINERAL.

eruptive rocks. The peculiar aggregation of the albite
grains is in perfect harmony with this view, for such a
structure would be by no means remarkable in a crystalline
schist. I am therefore of opinion that the jadeite and the
other rocks must be looked upon as part of the series of
crystalline schists, overlaid by Tertiary beds and probably
denuded by erosion. It is most probable that they were
raised to their present level together with the surrounding
Tertiary rocks, when these latter were subjected to folding.
I have repeatedly laid stress on the fact that these rocks
must have been subjected to great pressure, which can only
be accounted for by folding. 1 do not assert for a moment
that the above arguments are absolutely convincing, but
they certainly support the view which best accords with
the petrological evidence, while the stratigraphical condi-
tions observed by Noetling in the mines at Tammaw fully
bear out this view. Further observations, however, with
regard to the geological conditions of that country, will
certainly decide the question. On the geological map of
Burma, west of the Irrawaddi, even west of Mogaung,
towards Tammaw, submetamorpliic rocks are indicated ;
while crystalline limestones, probably of Silurian age,
extend to within about two miles of the eastern side of the
jadeite mines.”

It will be seen from the above that, while ISToetling is
unable to decide from field evidence the question of the
origin of the jadeite, Bauer is decidedly of the opinion
u that the jadeite and the other rocks must be looked upon
as part of the series of crystalline schists.” This account
of Bauer has already been referred to by Pirsson, who, to a
great extent, bases upon these observations his conclusions
as to the origin of jadeite, as set forth in an earlier sec-
tion of this work.

INDIA.

Although Fischer'* is rather sceptical about the occur-
rence of jade in India, yet certain observations of the Geo-
logical Survey of India leave little doubt that it does occur

* II. Fischer. < Jade it and Nephvit. 1880, p r 828.

JADE AS A MINERAL.

221

in several places in Central India, though apparently only
to a small extent. It is not stated whether any mining is
done at these localities or not.

The best-described occurrence is in the small State of
Rewa, where it is associated with corundum** A section
from south to north across a small hill between Pipra and
Kadopani is as follows :

a. White quartz-schist.

b. Hornblende-rock passing into jade, a few yards thick,

c. White tremoiitic quartz-schist.

d. White and green jade, including some purple corun-
dum and containing eiipliyllite and schorl,

e. Bed of corundum several yards thick.

f. Porphyi'itic gneiss with hornblende-rock.

It is also stated elsewhere + that in south Mirzapur
(which is east of Rewa) “the hornblende-rock west of
Dumrahur and Urijlmt passes into a finely granular to
nearly compact tremolite forming coarse jade, and that
this last is also found between Kotomowa and Bhamni
and at the top of Kurea GMiat. An olive-green jade also
occurs north-west of KisarL”

It is uncertain, in the absence of mineralogical and chem-
ical details, whether the material spoken of as jade is
really so or not, and, if so, whether it isjadeite or nephrite.
Since the geologists of the Indian Survey were undoubtedly
well acquainted with jade, it can scarcely be doubted that
what they called jade was really that material. Whether
it was jadeite or nephrite is another matter, but the transi-
tion from a hornblende-rock to the jade points with some
probability to the latter, at least in some cases. It is to
be noted that the section at Pipra points unmistakably to
a me tamer p hie complex, and that all the localities men-
tioned lie in the area of the Bengal gneiss.

The examination of the specimens from India in the
Bishop Collection is of great interest in this connection.
These — or at least the greater part of them— are easily

* Cf. Manual of the Geology of India, Economic Geology, Part I,
Corundum, 1898, p. 50.

t Dictionary of the Economic Products of India IV, p. 385, 1890.

222

JADE AS A MINERAL.

distinguished by the trained eye (some even by the casual
observer) from the jades of Burma, the K’un Lun, and
other localities, by their peculiar texture and color. The
marked character and general constancy of this individ-
uality, taken together with the fact that the microscopical,
chemical, and specific gravity examinations show that these
Indian jades are all nephrite,* would indicate that a large
part of the material comes from one locality, and that it is
native, i. of Indian origin. It is difficult, and has been
so far impossible, to ascertain the exact location, or even
the existence, of such quarries or other sources, but from
the occurrences just mentioned, it is to be presumed that
they exist in Central India. It will be recalled that the
indications here were that the jade was nephrite.

TUItKISTAN.

The localities of jade in this region are among the most
important in the world, and apparently the longest known,
to Europeans at least. They were first noticed by Marco
Polo (1271-1313), and by a number of other writers. They
are also fairly well known geological! y, having been inves-
tigated by several modern travellers. The localities are all
in the K’un Lun Mountains south of Khotan, in south-
eastern Turkistau. The jades of this region are true
nephrites, both white and green, and jadeite does not seem
to occur abundantly. +

The first reliable investigation was that of the brothers
Schlagintweifc in 1856 and 1857. H. von Sclilagintweit X
describes the localities as follows, his remarks, on account
of their importance, being transcribed verbatim, (with
some small omissions).

* In the Collection there Is hut one exception to this general statement, No.
13308, a beautifully jewelled butterfly with wings of brilliant emerald-green
jadeite. The workmanship is decidedly Indian in style. No microscopical or
chemical examination of it has been made.

f Schoe ten sack (Jnaug, Biss. Unit-. Freiburg, Berlin * 1 885 ) describes some
specimens brought by vou Sclilagintweit which are partly of nephrite and
partly of jadeite,

X Von Schlagmtweit, Siiz. her, d. Math, pky&. Classe. Akad, Wiss. Mun-
clien. III. pp. 336-243. 1873.

JADE AS A MINERAL.

223

44 We found nephrite in situ in Kliotan on both slopes
of the K s un Luu range. In 1856 and 1857 we found at the
northern boundary of the nephrite area large groups of
quarries near Gulbashen, a station on the right bank of
the Karakash river, In Long. 78° 15' E. of Greenwich and
Lat. 36° 13' N, ; at an elevation of 12252 feet* These
quarries appear to be abandoned : they were deserted in
both years.

“ One group of quarries, which we were informed
was called Konakan, is close to Gulbashen, the other,
called Karala, about 61 miles down the valley. In both,
the outcrop of nephrite is only a little higher than the
floor of the valley, which here separates the northern slope
of the Karakorum chain from the southern slope of the
K 1 tin Lun chain.

“ The road from the river to the Konakan quarries leads
along a talus slope, which contains many pieces of nephrite,
derived partly from weathering and partly from blocks
fallen from the workings. The masses of nephrite in the
large quarries are evidently in situ, and indeed a metamor-
pliic phase * of the crystalline rocks generally parallel in
dip and strike with the foliation (? Zerlduftwfhg) of the
rocks which bound it; though in the nephrite mass itself
no such foliation (?) is found. The direction of strike of
the foliation (?) planes is about the same as that of the
slope of the mountain down toward the river, but their dip
is steeper than that of the mountain slope, so that the
whole succession and mutual relations of the rocks are
visible.

4t The prevailing rock in the Konakan quarries is gneiss,
granite also occurring, but in smaller amount. It occurs
both above and below the nephrite, but near the nephrite
itself greenstone (or Lfi diorite' 5 ) occurs on botli sides,
which penetrates the gneiss for short distances.

u The diorite is a mixture of hornblende and feldspar, in
which orthoclase occurs sporadically, while albite is pre-
dominant. The rock is very compact. The diorite does

* The meaning here is not quite clear, but the meta morph ic character of the
occurrence is evident. If. S. W,

224

JADE AS A MINERAL.

not penetrate the nephrite as it does the gneiss, but is on
the contrary separated from it by a layer of altered sub-
stance of varying thickness.

4 1 The Karala quarries proved to be very similar to the
above in their rock structure, though the nephrite occurs
in even greater quantities. At Karala the rocks of the
mountain slope are micaceous and dioritic. They are not
as pure as the gneiss and diorite of Konakan, but are like-
wise very compact. The layers of soft, friable substance
in connection with the nephrite are thicker. This is partly
yellow and partly red, and is evidently a product of
decomposition by percolating water, mixed with talc. It
is certainly not a tectonic fissure. The strata of nephrite
are also here much greater, from 20 to 40 feet thick. The
thickness could be measured directly in places which had
been quarried and which showed the rock in profile. It is
possible that this thickness of pure neprite is continued
still deeper in the mountain, yet the mass of nephrite
seems in general to be underlain at some depth by The
very variable crystalline rocks. It does not form a dike or
stock, but is clearly in t erst ratified, the stratum running
along the slope, with the strike parallel to that of the foli-
ation. In the nephrite masses only joint planes occur
which differ in origin and position from the fissures of the
surrounding rocks.

u At a greater altitude, nearer the crest of the K?nn Lun,
along the south slope, no additional nephrite was met with,
either along our line of march over the Elchi Pass, or over
the Kalian Pass west of this. Along the latter diorite is
the prevailing rock as far as the pass. Granular varieties
of gneiss frequently occur, as well as gray schists in thin
strips. Foliation is always evident. Our route over the
Elchi Pass showed that this was quite analogous to the
Kilian Pass, geologically. On the north slope of the
K’nn Lun, as far as the border of the Plain of Turkistan,
no more nephrite was seen along the route. This does not
occur at all west of the province of K ho tan.

u On the road from Elchi Pass to Elchi, the chief city of
K ho tail, however, there are two nephrite quarries. We

JADE AS A MINERAL.

225

ourselves could not visit these quarries on account of
political difficulties, but Mohammad Amin knew of them
and had told of them in an official report which he made in
1862 at Lahore. The upper of the quarries is at Amsha, a
small village about twenty-five English miles from Elchi.
This quarry does not appear to be any longer in use.
Those layers at least which are exposed in the present con*
dition of the quarry show relatively little pure nephrite.
The quarries near the village of Kara at are far more prom-
ising. The quality of the nephrite found there in situ is
so excellent that it finds a ready sale. The situation near
the edge of the mountain, and its distance of only fifteen
miles from Elchi, at a height greater by 1500 feet, favor
the distribution of the quarried material.

u Nephrite is found as river-boulders as far as the
plains of eastern Turkistan. The rivers in which such
boulders are found are ; the Karakash, the Khotan, the
Y urungkash, and the Keria.* I know nothing of the occur-
rence of nephrite pebbles in the Yarkand river, which is
west of the Karakash. This seems to confirm the absence
of nephrite in the province of Yarkand. 3 ’

Yon Schlagintweit also refers briefly to short accounts
by a few travellers who have visited the localities, but
which add little of value here. Dr. H. Cayley, who
travelled through the country in 1868, and who is men-
tioned by von Schlagintweit, published later an account of
the jade mines which closely corresponds to that of von
Schlagintweit, and need not be quoted here, f

Somewhat later the occurrence of jade at these locali-
ties was described by Dr, F. Stoliczka, geologist of the
Indian Geological Survey. From his paper $ we abstract
the following :

“ The portion of the K’un Lun range which extends
from Shahidulia eastwards towards Koten, appears to con-
sist entirely of gneiss, syenitic gneiss, and metamorphic
rocks, the latter being quartzose, micaceous, and horn-

* The author shows that all these drain from the K’un Lon Mountains,
f Cayley, Macmillan's Magazine t XXIV, p. 47'3, 1871.

X Stoliczka. Quart, jour , Geol. Soc>, XXX, pp. 508 -570, 1874.

JADE AS A MINERAL.

blendic schists. On the southern declivity of this range,
which runs along the right bank of the Karakash river T
are situated the old jade-mines, or rather quarries, formerly
worked by the Chinese ; they are about seven miles dis-
tant from the Khirgiz encampment of Belakchi, which is
itself about twelve miles 3. E. from Shah id til I a.

£< We found the principal jade locality to be about a
mile and a half from the river, and at a height of about 500
feet above its level. Just in this portion of the range, a
few short spurs spring from the higher hills, all of which,
however, as is usual, are thickly covered with debris and
sand, the result of the disintegration of the original rock.

u Viewing the mines from a little distance, the place
seemed to resemble a number of pigeon-holes worked in
the side of the mountain, except that they were rather
irregularly distributed ; on closer inspection we saw a
number of pits and holes dug out in the slopes, extending
over a height of nearly a couple of hundred feet and over
a length of about a quarter of a mile,

“The rock of which the low spurs at the base of the
range are composed is partly a thin-bedded, rather quartz-
ose, syenitic gneiss, mica, and hornblende schist. The
feldspar gradually, but. entirely, disappears in the schis-
tose beds, which, on weathered plains, often ave the ap-
pearance of a laminated sandstone ; they include the prin-
cipal jade-yielding rocks, being traversed by veins of a
pure white, apparently zeolitic mineral, varying in thick-
ness from a few to about forty feet, and perhaps even
more. The strike of the veins is from X, by \V\ to S. by
E. or sometimes due B. and W, ; and their dip is either
very, much towards the north, or they run vertically. I
have at present no sufficient means of ascertaining the true
nature of this vein rock, as it may rather be called, being
an aggregate of single crystals.

“This zeolitic rock is again traversed by veins of
nephrite, commonly called ‘jade’ which, however, also
occurs in 4 nests.' There appear to be two varieties of it,
if the one of which I shall presently speak really deserves
the name of ‘jade,’ It is a white* tough mineral, having

JADE AS A MINERAL.

227

an indistinct cleavage in two different directions, while in
the other directions the fracture Is finely granular or
splintery as in true nephrite.

“Portions of this mineral (which is apparently the
same as that which is usually called white 'jade’) have
sometimes a fibrous structure. This white jade rarely
occupies the whole thickness of the vein : it usually occurs
only along the sides in immediate contact with the zeolitie
vein-rock, with which it sometimes appears to be very
closely connected. The middle part of some of the veins,
and most of the others, entirely consists of the common
green jade, which is characterized by an entire absence of
cleavage.

“The hardness is always below 7, generally only equal
to that of common feldspar, or very little higher, though
the polished surface of the stone appears to attain a greater
hardness after long exposure to the air. The color is very
variable, from pale to somewhat darker green, approaching
that of pure serpentine. The pale green variety is by far
the most common, and is in general use for cups, mouth-
pieces for pipes, rings, and other articles used as charms
or ornaments, I saw veins of the pale green jade amount-
ing in thickness to fully ten feet ; but it is by no means
easy to obtain large pieces of it, the mineral being gener-
ally fractured in all directions.

“ Green jade of a brighter color and higher transluceuey
is comparatively rare, and on that account alone, no doubt,
much more valuable. It is usually found in thin veins of
one or a few inches ; and even then it is full of flaws.
Since the expulsion of the Chinese from Yarkand in 18(19, the
jade quarries in the Karakash valley have become entirely
deserted : they must have yielded a considerable portion
of the jade of commerce ; and though, no doubt, the work-
men made a good selection on the spot, taking away only
the best-colored and the largest pieces, even now a great
number of fair fragments measuring from twelve to fifteen
inches in diameter form part of the rubbish thrown away
as useless.

“The Belakchi locality, however, is not the only one

238

JADE AS A MINERAL.

which yielded jade to the Chinese ; for there is no reason
to doubt the existence of jade along the whole of the K J an
Lun range, as far as the mica and hornblende schists
extend. The great difficulty in tracing out the veins and
following them when once discovered, is due to the large
amount of superficial debris and shifting sand which con-
ceal the rock. However, fragments of jade may be seen
among the boulders of almost every stream which comes
down from the range.

“ We also observed large fragments of jade near the
top of the Sanju Pass, which, on its southern side at least,
mostly consists of thin -bedded gneiss and hornblende-
schist. Another rich locality for jade appears to exist
somewhere south of Koten, from which the largest and
best -colored pieces are said to come : most of them are
stated to be obtained as boulders in a river bed, though
this seems rather doubtful. Very likely the Chinese
worked several quarries south of Koten, similar to those on
the Karakash valley ; and most of the jade from this last
locality was no doubt brought into Koten, this being the
nearest manufacturing town ,* 5

A locality of jade boulders near Ilchi (the chief town of
Kilo tan) has been visited recently by Sven Hedin, who
speaks of it thus :* “ I made an excursion to the village

of Kaltakumat (Short Sand), situated two and a half
potais (six and one-quarter miles) northeast of Ilchi. To
reach it I had to ford the river Yimmkash. On the other
side of Tam-aghil (the Stone Village) the desert began,
with occasional sand-dunes and ravines left behind by the
stream. After that the ground became excessively stony,
and I soon perceived that we were riding along an old
river-bed.

“This disused river-bed is one of the places that yield
the largest supplies of jade. Everywhere the ground was
cut by trenches six or seven feet deep, a few feet wide and
at most thirty feet long, although varying somewhat as
regards size according to the amount of work done in
them. The material which is thrown lip out of the
* Hedin. Through Asia , New York, 1899. II. p. 738.

JADE AS A MINERAL.

229

trenches consists of round, polished stones, sand, and clay.
It is among these stones that the jade is found.”

Some of these pebbles obtained by Sven Hedin are at
present in the Bishop Collection (Nos. 13492, 13433, and
13434), as well as several hundred from the Yurung-kash
and Karakash rivers in Kliotan, obtained from Peking
(Nos. 13518, 13519, and 13520).

It must be added that Professor Hintze* says that
nephrite occurs in situ on the Raskan Daria, a tributary
of the Yarkand Daria (three or four degrees west of the
city of Kliotan), and that the Yarkand also contains
boulders of nephrite, which resemble the material of the
great monolith on the tomb of Timur at Samarkand. His
authority for these statements is not given.

SIBERIA.

The fact that jade occurs in Siberia has long been known,
though some of that brought from Kolywan, the earliest-
mentioned locality, lias been shown to be really prehnite.
A number of writers f have described nephrites from the
province of Irkutsk near Lake Baikal, in eastern Siberia,
and from rivers flowing north from the Sayan Mountains,
in south-central Siberia. All these refer, however, to jade
occurring as boulders or transported blocks. It is only
within the last few years that jade (nephrite) has been
found in Siberia undeniably in situ. This has been done
by Professor L. von Jaczewski, whose account (slightly
abridged), written specially for this work, is here given.

J A CZ K W SK I 1 8 EXPL O K ATI ON S.

Renovanz (1744-98) reported the occurrence of nephrite
in the Altai, but later investigations have not confirmed
his statements.

The first reports about nephrite in the Belaja river

* Schle&isch e Zeit u ng. B res I au , Ju ne 31 p 1 890*

| Yon Fellenberg. Neves Jahrb. 1871, p, 173,

Geinitz. Neues Jahrb . 1878, p* 918*

Jannetaz and Michel, Ball. Soc. Min * de IPrance. IV. p, 178, 1881.

Beck and Muachketow, Verh. miss. mm. Ges. (2). XVIII. pp. 9-38* 188.

Arznmi. Zeit.fur Kryst. 1885, p. 510.

230

JADE AS A MINERAL.

system elate from the beginning of the nineteenth century,
but systematic investigations were not made until 1850,
when Perrtiikin was sent out by the Imperial court ministry
to find nephrite for the stone-cutting establishment at
Peterhof.

Fermikin found a great number of nephrite blocks on
the lower part of the Onot river and along the borders of
the Dajalock. Among the papers and maps left by him
were found notes regarding an occurrence in sitit of the
mineral on the brook Zagan-Ghoii.

Tsehersky, the well-known Siberian explorer, made an
unsuccessful search under very unfavorable circumstances,
in the upper course of t lie Onot, and of the Zagan-Chori
brobk; and Bogdauowitsch, in 1894, was prevented by
heavy rains from reaching the Dajalock river, where he
had hoped to find nephrite in situ.

In 1895 I made a short trip to the river Onot, pene-
trated to the mouth of the Usin, and reached above the
latter a narrow pass— a real canon — which I could not
enter, I then turned back. The result of this expedition
revealed the important fact that nephrite in situ must be
sought for at points much further up the river than those
at which Perrnikin found his blocks.

In 1899 His Majesty’s cabinet invited me to search for
nephrite in situ for the purpose of procuring a monolith
for a sarcophagus to be placed on the grave of the Emperor
Alexander III. My work lasted two years, 1899 and 1897.
Incessant rains rendered the first year almost barren of
results.

The region explored forms a part of t he Sajan mountain
system. This part lies between the upper course of the
Kitoi on the south, the Urick river on the west, the lower
course of the Bela j a river on the north, and the Onot
river on the east.*'

* The accompanying map was drawn according to observations made with-
out instruments in the course of my researches. A more detailed map does
not exist. The Belaja river is a right-bank tributary of the Angara. The
rivers Onot mid Urick enter the Belaja on its right bank. The names here
given are those in common use among the Russians and Burjats living at the
base of the northern slope of the Sajan tableland. The So jots, who have
their cabins in the mountains, call the Onot s+ Osspa/* and the upper course of
the Urick u Ch crock/' The Kitoi also joins the Angara above the Belaja.

JADE AS A MINERAL,

To reach this region the traveller uses the great Siberian
railroad to the Tscheremsliowo station, whence a Siberian
tarantass takes him southward for a distance of 50 worsts

to a village called Golumeteiskoje, where he must organize
a mounted caravan to penetrate the uninhabited, utterly
wild, and mountainous Taiga, The caravan must needs be
large, as a month is required to visit all the nephrite li tid-
ing- places, and provisions have to be taken along for all J

that period* So far as the mounts are concerned, the
Russian and Burjat horses can be used only for the trip? r

along the lower course of the Onot and Urick* Along the
upper courses, where serious obstacles are to be overcome, jj

they must be exchanged for Sojot horses, which are used ^

to travelling on uncommonly steep mountains and ledges,
while able to Jive on the scantiest grass diet*

A very good road leads from the village of Golumetei to
the last Russian blockhouse on the Onot, a distance of
about 40 worsts, according to general calculations. At
this point begins the Taiga, and the mountain region, with
their scenic beauties and obstacles.

For a further distance of about 50 wersts — L e*, to the
mouth of the Ugungol— there is a narrow footpath, f

occasionally used hunters, but from that point onward ?

the traveller must make his own road* The river runs in ^

cascades and waterfalls, and rocks reaching up to 100

quently it is necessary to wade from one bank to the other.
These crossings are often very difficult, and fords are few ;
therefore one must either build a raft, or, as I did after my

metres in height block the advance on ei ther way. Conse-

232

r7 A D E AS A MINERAL.

sary to carry rlie packs up high mountains, and to pull the
horses up with ropes. It should be added that the Burjats
and So jots, like the Russians, understand how to overcome
seemingly insuperable difficulties. The Sojots will climb
up an almost perpendicular mountain like chamois.

With few exceptions, the whole journey had to be made
through territory of this character.

The following marches were made in search of nephrite
deposits :

Tiie Onot and Urick rivers and Dajalock and Zagan-
Chori rivers were followed from beginning to end, while,
in addition, excursions were made to right and left into the
country lying between them.

Orograph l c Oh aracteri sties.

I apply the name i Sajan mountain region- to the table-
land which begins on the right bank of the Jenissei,
embraces the whole southern part of Siberia, and ends in
t lie east with the meridian of Selenga, Towards the south
this tableland merges into Mongolia. At the north it
ends abruptly with a considerable scarp, running from
southeast to northwest, and just south of the great Siberian
railway. This immense tableland owes its present aspect
to tectonic and erosive processes. The former have
brought about the general outline ; the latter have
chiselled the details of the design. In Siberia the highest
points of this tableland are grouped along the mountain-
ous chain on its border, some of them reaching an altitude
of 3000 metres. Towards the north, the elevations diminish
gradually.

The deeply cut river valleys have divided the Sajan
tableland into a few rather well-defined mountain ranges,
the Tan kins and Kitoi Alps, and a whole chain of moun-
tains which follo w more or less a north and south direction.

To give the reader some idea of the elevation of this
region, I add here the following figures:

On the northern border of the scarp, the foot of the
terrace is situated at an altitude of about 650 metres; the
terrace itself reaches at its crest a height of 800 metres.

JA DK AS A MINEKAL,

233

In the Kit 01 Alps the transition from the sources of the
Guot (Osspa) to the Zagan-Chori, is situated at an altitude
of 2608 metres; the neighboring basalt peaks overtop the
ridge by at least 3000 metres. The Chalbin mountain
ridge lies at an altitude of 2310 metres.

One can form some idea of the nature of the Onot and
Urick rivers from the figures of their fall. Thus, the
Urick lias a fall of more than 400 metres in a distance of
100 kilometres along its lower course, between the
Gadshirskoje blockhouse and the mouth of the Chonschon*

Geolog leal Ch a racier 1st ics .

The Sajan tableland is bordered on its northern side
along the scarp-line by old palsedzdic deposits, which are
generally classed with the Cambrian. These deposits are
occasionally covered by over thrust older crystalline
schists.

Below the surface, the tableland consists of meta-
morphic schists, and different varieties of gneiss and
granite. These are cut by thick dikes of diabase and
gabbro, which furnished the material for the serpentine
now so generally present.

The basalts reach a high degree of development. They
cover the greater part of the region with a thick sheet,
reaching a thickness of 300 metres in some spots. They
have Ho wed into the valleys, which have a general direc-
tion from north to south. These basalts have determined
the table form of many of the peaks, particularly in the
northern part of the Kitoi valley.

So far as the nephrite deposits are concerned, the chief
interest centres in a group of met amorphic schists, which,
petrographically considered, show considerable diversity.
Here we have argillaceous schists (? Tonschiefer) changing
into phyllitic schists, talc, chlorite, mica, and actinolite-
schists, A whole series of schists here are a product of
mechanical change from diabases. The strata of all these
schists are much disturbed, and many are much folded.
It is not only the schists, however, that bear strong traces
of mechanical deformation, but also all the other rock
varieties, the basalts forming the only exception.

234

JADE AS A MINERAL.

The Nephrite Deposits.

The first primary deposit of nephrite was found at an
altitude of about 2000 metres on the Ghara-Skelga, a
tributary on the right bank of the upper course of the
Uriels: (or Chorock). This brook, which is but 15 kilo-
metres long, flows from SSW. to NNE., almost at right
angles to the direction of the strike of the strongly crushed
and much folded schists. In its lower course argillaceous
schists are in immediate contact with limestone, through
which the Chorock forces its way in a gorge several hun-
dred metres deep, and so narrow that the “Kabargi”
(chamois) can jump it with ease.

Farther up the course of the Chara-Slielga only dike-
like, actinolitic schists occur, which have to a great extent
been changed into serpentine, and contain large aggrega-
tions of nephrite. Still farther up, these are supplanted
by granite, which, in turn, is succeeded by argillaceous
and actinolitic schists. The latter of these have been
changed into nephrite. The remaining products of the
hydrodynamic change are serpentine and magnetite
schists, which remind one of Iistwanite. The depth of
these nephrite deposits can be estimated at the places
where the mineral crops out. It reaches here a depth of
six metres and more. The nephrite here has a beautiful
color, almost emerald-green. A characteristic admixture
is graphite.

A second primary deposit of nephrite is found on the
Onot, near the mouth of a brook called Tehe-Cher. I did
not search here for the primary deposits, as the Cabinet
considered this unnecessary. The many sharp-edged
nephrite blocks found here, which reached a diameter of
six metres, demonstrate that the discovery of the vein
itself would offer no difficulties.

In tiie same way only superficial search was made on
the Zagan-Chori, but here, too, nephrite blocks were found,
Following the information vouchsafed by the Sojots, T
found the spot, near a larch-tree, where, fifty years before,
Fermikin had made a mark. Nephrite did not break

JADE AS A MINERAL. 235

through at, this spot, however, but on this stream, too, the
search for the deposits would offer no difficulties.

As for the Dajalock, no nephrite was found in tile valley
through which it runs. This should not be taken, how-
ever, as evidence that the mineral does not occur there.
When I visited the Dajalock, my researches were seriously
hampered by torrents of rain, so that my failure should
not be regarded as final.

The question of the occurrence of primary deposits of
nephrite in Central Siberia may thus be considered as
settled. The results obtained are more than sufficient for
the purpose for which the investigations were made.

The mineral, which fully deserves the name of “rock,”
occurs in such vast quantities and masses, that not only
sarcophagi, large vases, and similar objects can be cut
from it, bat also whole columns and monuments.

It is evident from this description of Jaczewski’s that
the Siberian nephrite, as observed in situ, occurs in con-
nection with a metamorphic complex, analogously to its
occurrence elsewhere {as, e. </., in the K’un Luti), being
found in close association with gneisses and schists of
various kinds.*

Although the work of Beck and Muscliketow is confined
entirely to the examination of pieces not in situ, yet, for
the sake of completeness, it will be well to give a list of
the localities mentioned by tliem.f These are ; Belaja
river in Transbaikal, Kitoy river in the Nertchinsk mining
district, Bnstraja river in Irkutsk Province, and several
other localities, the so-called jades of which turned out to
be serpentine, garnet, or other material.

CHINA.

The occurrence of jade in China itself is as yet somewhat
uncertain, though there is evidence which points to its

* Saytzeff (Ref, in Neu. Jtihrl)., 1897, I, ]>. 386) describes petrogrnpliically
some of the rooks of the Sayansk mountains, among which are mentioned
syenites, gabbros, and gneisses.

t Beck and Muschketow. Verh. Min , Qe$, St. Petersburg, XVIII. pp,

1-76. 1882.

236

.TADE AS A MINERAL.

presence. The large number of jade objects from this
country are in the vast majority of cases undoubtedly
made of nephrite from Turkistan or of jadeite from
Burma. Possibly the Siberian nephrite has been used,
but, if so, only to a small extent, as is also true of the
New Zealand nephrite. Pumpelly* mentions several
localities: six in Shensi, four in Yunnan, and one in
Kweichow. While these and other reports are not wholly
trustworthy, yet evidence that jade is found in China
proper, at least as pebbles, is furnished by specimens in
the Bishop Collection.

These consist of four pebbles stated to have come from
the Biu Yang river, which rises in the western part of
Kiangsi, and flows westward to the Slang river at Chang
Sha Fa in Central China. There seems to be no reason to
doubt the correctness of the provenance of these speci-
mens, which are therefore of importance as establishing
the fact of the occurrence of jade in China.

EUROPE,

Jordansmuhl.

Although boulders and worked objects in jade had been
known in Europe for many years, it was not till 1884
that jade (nephrite) was discovered in situ in this quarter
of the globe. The very great importance of this discovery,
as bearing on many archaeological problems, is evident,
and is dealt with in another part of this volume. +

The discovery was made near Jordansmuhl, S. W. of
Breslau, in Silesia, by H. Traube, who announced it in
a short note.f In a later paper § he describes the occur-
rence at some length, from which we abstract the follow-
ing :

“The nephrite occurs in connection with granulife or
serpentine, which, together with “gabbro,” forms a. low
range of hills stretching in a northwesterly direction from

* Smithsonian Contributions. No, 202, p. 117, 1806.

1 Of. on this point Hintze. Schle&i&cfie ZHtuuf/. Breslau, June 21, 1899,

J Traube, Leopold ina. XX. 1884, No. 7-8,

g Traube. Mu, Jahrb Beil. Band,, 111, pp. 412-427. 1885.

JADE AS A MINERAL*

237

Jordans m till 1 to Naselwitz, the so-called Stein berge (Stone
Mountains), The gabbro* occurs only in the north-
western spurs* Near Jordansmuht itself the serpentine is
exposed to a considerable depth in a large quarry, which
has been worked for a long time, and in which also granu-
lite crops out* Iu this locality the latter penetrates the
serpentine as a wedge-shaped ridge, which increases in
size towards the bottom, so that the serpentine overlies it,
as it does elsewhere in the Zobten region, as, e , g at
Mlietsch,

“ The nephrite occurs at the contact of the granulite and
serpentine, and accompanies both of them for long dis-
tances, in layers which are often over a foot in thickness*
The nephrite also occurs in the serpentine itself as small
inclusions and knobs, which, however, are always near
the granulite contact* It is to be remarked that the
nephrite enclosed in the serpentine is always light, while
the others show darker colors,

“As the nephrite is approached, the granulite, which is
composed essentially of quartz, orthoclase, and plagioclase,
and a little mica, changes iu composition in a remarkable
way* The feldspar is altered almost completely to com-
pact epidote and zoisite, the quartz and mica disappear;
and a green, finely fibrous hornblende appears as a new
component. Under the microscope the last appears per-
fectly colorless, much frayed, and shows between crossed
nicols a structure analogous to that of nephrite* . * .
As the junction is approached the hornblende predomi-
nates more and more, until the last zone of the rock is such
an intimate mixture of hornblende and epidote that the
two cannot be distinguished by the naked eye. The
microscope also shows that pyroxene enters also as a new
component*

“Both hornblende and pyroxene in this rock are still
very Fresh, with spindle-shaped outlines, but can only
with difficulty be discriminated, since cleavage is seldom

* These gabbros of Traube sire the Zobtonite of J. Roth — i, e + , rocks with
the mmeralogical and chemical characters of true eruptive gabbros, but
metamorphie in origin. They are probably metamorphosed eruptive gabbros*

238

JADE AS A MINERAL.

to be seen. A transition of the pyroxene to nephrite
through the setting up of a fibrous structure (uralitization)
is unmistakable in many places.

‘'The more the zoisite disappears the finer-grained
becomes the rock, until finally it is seen to be composed
of small, flattened, nearly round grains, which do not
admit of sure determination as either ampliibole or
pyroxene. In general, however, they would seem to be
the latter, at least judging from the change into nephrites,
which is constantly observed, and which can only take
place with pyroxene. This nephrite is composed of short,
thick, interwoven bundles of fibres."

An analysis gave :

$i0a- < * . , * 57.26

MgQ-... .. .... 19.96

CaG.,., 13.19

FeO . * 4.33

MuO...* .... . 0,7#

AlaOa . **.. 1.40

H 2 G ..... ....... ....... £.53

99.30

It will be seen from this that tins pyroxene-amphibole
rock does not differ materially from nephrite in cliemical
composition.

“Green nephrite proper usually comes next to the above-
described rock. Sometimes the pyroxene-ampliibole rock
alternates with layers of compact zoisite, but again this
appears to be lacking entirely, especially when the nephrite
(which borders the granulite) is coarse-fibred * 51

The microscopic characters of thin sections of the ne-
phrite are given by the author in great detail, many of them
being shown to resemble the nephrites of New Caledonia,
though there is considerable variety.

u Arznmi - has reached the conclusion, based on the re-
sults of his examination of nearly all the different ne-
phrites known thus far, that the nephrites are partly of
primary origin, and partly due to the uralitization of
pyroxene. The former are called primary nephrites, the

# Arzrum. Zeit. ftir Bthfu> 1884, p. 300.

JADE AS A MINERAL.

339

latter pyroxene-nephrites. The dark-green nephrite of
Jordansmuhl described above appears to be derived from
pyroxene, A secondary origin would consequently have
to be ascribed to the greater part of the hornblende.

u The far rarer light-colored nephrites occurring in ser-
pentine differ in many respects from those just described.
The Jordansmuhl serpentine is derived exclusively from
diallage. No traces of original olivine, which can be seen
in other localities of the Zobten district, could be found
here. The alteration of the diallage is generally far
advanced, but remains of microscopic bastites are fre-
quently to be observed. The rock which surrounds the
nephrite appears to be much fresher,”

The characters of these nephrites are described in detail
and the conclusion reached, that “The nephrites which
occur in serpentine differ from those which occur in con-
nection with granulifce not only in their structure, which is
usually perfectly schistose, but also in their composition,
since here primary amphibole plays a prominent role.
Consequently this nephrite may be considered on the
whole as primary nephrite proper, even though pyroxene
may have contributed in part to its formation.”

The author goes on to remark that the Jordansmuhl
nephrites show peculiarities of structure and appearance
which differentiate them from all other known nephrites,
though on a former page lie had noted their general simi-
larity to those of New Caledonia,

u The original relations of the nephrite of Jordansmuhl
to the diallage rock, the mother rock of the serpentine,
and the granulite, may perhaps be represented by the as-
sumption of the former existence of a zone of pyroxene
rock rich in finely fibrous amphibole between the diallage
rock and the granulite, both of which at this point con-
tained finely fibrous hornblendes. Furthermore an anal-
ogous rock would have formed the inclusions and bands
in the diallage rock, though here finely fibrous, nephritic
amphibole surpassed the pyroxene in quantity.”

Tn his final paragraph the author points out the great
similarity obtaining in the conditions and character of the

240

JADE AS A MINERAL,

occurrences both at Jordansmiihl and at the K*un tom
quarries.

In April, 1899, Mr. George F. Kunz visited this jade
locality along with Professor Hintze of Breslau, Lieutenant
Oscar von Kriegsheim, on whose estate it is, and several
others, and secured many good-sized specimens of nephrite,
including one large block weighing 2140 kilogrammes, now
in the Bishop Collection and numbered 13521.

He describes the finding-place as u a quarry forming a
gap 400 feet long and 200 feet deep in what was originally
a low hill probably 600 feet in length and 300 in width,
with a central height of 70 to 80 feet above the floor of the
quarry, which at its entrance is on a level with the sur-
rounding plain. At one end stood large columnar masses
of a white and flesh-colored quartzite, rising to a height of
twenty-five feet from the floor of the quarry, and varying
from three to twenty feet in width, with a slight dip to
the north. They had been left by the quarry men when
they removed the softer surrounding serpentine. About
fifty feet to the southwest of these quartzite masses the
floor of the quarry seemed to be some eight to ten feet
higher than elsewhere, A blow of the hammer showed
tli at this was a bed of nephrite that had been passed over
by the workmen owing to tile difficulty of quarrying it.
Near the central point of the quarry a mass of serpentine
and talcose schists and apparently altered nephrite was
found in a vein of serpentine which had a dip of 55* to tile
north, the vein rounding at the edges and presenting a
bow-like appearance,

sv The serpentine is overlain by a deposit of loess vary-
ing in depth from one foot to six feet, and in this was
found a large piece of rich red syenite. 1 ’ Mr, Kunz fur-
ther adds that it is interesting to note that the nephrite
was found in a part of the quarry not far distant from the
beautiful white garnets of such rare occurrence, and im-
mediately adjacent to the masses of quartzite which may
be a fused sandstone in character resembling the red and
chocolate-colored rock found at Sioux Falls, Dakota, and
generally known as Norwegian porphyry.* *

241

JADK AS A MINERAL*

Among the rocks and minerals collected in the quarry
were serpentine ; quartz-zoisite rock, granulite ; quartz-
zoisite rock, wiesstein ; loess; altered magnesia-silicate
rock ; altered actinolite-seliist or slate ; hyalite or horn-
blende— zoisite rock ; hornblende rock with white and
green spots resembling nephrite; aetinolite with serpen-
tine ; and kaolin,

Reicheiistein.

In 1887 Tran be announced the discovery by himself of
another locality of nephrite in mtu , at Reiehenstein in
Silesia. In his paper # lie gives the following details :

"The arsenical ores of this locality are found, not only
in serpentine and serpentine-bearing limestone, but also in
strata which consist essentially of diopside, but which
carry also ti'emolite and chlorite. The grayish-green to
greenish- white diopside is often very coarse and broad-
fibred, the irregular crystals of which are not infrequently
10 centimetres long, showing good prismatic cleavage and
parting parallel to the base. It also forms fine-grain^ to
compact masses, whose mineralogies! composition can
scarcely be made out with the naked eye. In its prismatic
development the diopside frequently shows alteration to
coarse-fibred, light green tremolite. The frequency of this
transformation of the diopside into fibrous hornblende had
already led me to believe that nephrite must occur here.
13 ut of all the specimens which were examined for this
porpose, of which the Mineralogical Museum at Breslau
possesses a large number, a few indeed appeared nephritic,
in consequence of a finely fibrous structure, but none of
them showed that finely felted structure under the micro-
scope which is so characteristic of nephrite, and to which
it owes its toughness.

u During a visit to Reiehenstein last year I took out of
the material hauled up at the Furstenstoile (Prince’s
Mine) a large specimen which showed clearly the char-
acters of nephrite in all respects. This was confirmed by
Arzntni of Aachen, to whom I sent a piece for examination*
m Trau be. Mues Jahrk 1887. II., pp, 275-278,

242

JADE AS A MINERAL.

Tb is Reichenstein nephrite, which forms a layer about
seven centimetres thick in the diopside rock, shows a
bright grayish-green color, resembling that of the southern
Siberian localities, in places with a reddish tinge, a very
imperfect foliation, and the characteristic splintery, dusty-
looking fracture, on freshly broken surfaces. In general
the nephrite is perfectly compact and fibrous only in a few
places, while at the borders, where it was originally in con-
tact with the surrounding ruck, It shows the beginnings of
serpen tin ization. It contains only very little arsenical
pyrites, and in places is quite free from this*”

This identification as nephrite was fully confirmed by
rile microscopic and chemical examination. The author
ends his note with the significant remark: ^Although
the Reichenstein nephrite has never been worked, yet the
new find, which has been made at a ranch- visited locality,
and one which has been often investigated mineral ogically
and geologically, shows how easily it may be overlooked,
and also indicates the probability that it occurs in situ at
a greater or less distance from the localities where it is met
with in a worked state.” This nephrite is represented in
the Collection by 13480, a piece of a pale green color,
and 13481, of a darker green, and thickly sprinkled
with crystals of arsenopyrite.

Apart from these two localities nephrite has never been
found hi situ in Europe, though it is very probable that it
will eventually be discovered among the metamorpbie
regions. Of boulders of nephrite the following may be
mentioned :

The discovery of a block of nephrite in the sands of
Potsdam was reported by Prince Gallitzin as far back as
1794. This was investigated Fischer* and by Arzruni +
and shown to be green nephrite. A second find was that
described by Breithaupt J in 1815, of a smooth polished
block of stone, which was found in the peat-bog of
Sell we m sal, near Duben in Prussian Saxony. This was

* 'Fischer, op. cit., pp. 2, 156, 157,

| Arzruni. Zezt. fur Kry&t. 1885. p. 540,

\ Breithaupt. Handbuch voti Li A . S. Hoffmann. IL, 254, 1815.

shown by Breithaupt to be nephrite, and was subsequently
investigated by von Fellenberg,* Fischer, f and Arzruni.f
A piece of it is No. 13482 of the Collection. A third early
find is that of tire Leipzig specimen, found in a peat hole
near Leipzig, and first mentioned and analysed by Ram-
in elsberg,§ in 1844. This was also briefly described by
Fischer | and Arzruni.*

It was suggested by Fischer ** and others that these
specimens had been brought by early man from Siberia or
Turlus tail and accidentally lost. The necessity for this
hypothesis has been done away with by the discoveries of
Trail be already noticed, and they were vigorously opposed
by Crednerff on geological grounds. He points out that :

1. The three localities lie in the region of the North Ger-
man Diluvium.

2. The three specimens were all taken from glacial
deposits.

3. The three localities lie in a zone which corresponds
exactly with the direction of transportation of glacial
material from Sweden through the North German Plain
towards the elevated part of Saxony.

He argues that: “On the basis of all investigations in
North German glacial deposits, it would be accepted with-
out question for any other stone so found, that it was
erratic and had originated in Sweden and had been trans-
ported to Germany by the ice. This is disputed in the
case of nephrite on the grounds that: 1. no occurrence of
nephrite is known in Sweden, 2. on account of the great
pet rograpl deal resemblance between the German blocks
and the nephrite of Siberia. Tires e facts cannot be
denied, but they lack force. The geological knowledge of

* Von FeUenjberg. Verb. <L Schweiz. Ge*. in Solothurn, Aug., I860.
\ Fischer, op. cit p. 253.

X A rz nmi , J Veit, fur . Kryst . , 1 885 , p . 540.

% Ram me Is berg. Pogff. Ann., LXIL , p. 148, 1844.

| Fischer, op. cit . , p, 217.

*\ Zeit. fur Krj/st. , 1885, p. 540.

** Fischer, Nm. Jakrh., 1881, L T pp. 190 ff.

■ffCredner. Nm. Jahrb., 1884, II., 235, ref.

244

JADE AS A MINERAL.

Sweden is so incomplete that it is impossible to determine
tlie exact place of origin of many of the boulders found in
the North German diluvium, and yet no geologist hesitates
to attribute them to Sweden. The petrographic argument
is likewise of little value.” Credner also points out that
Sweden offers the same geological conditions which are
associated with the occurrence of nephrite elsewhere,
namely the presence of gneiss and hornblende schists.

Additional specimens of nephrite occurring as boulders
have been found in Styria, Austria. With the doubtful
exception of one from the valley of the Sann, these nil
come from the valley of the Mur rive] 1 , on which the town
of Graz is situated.

The first of these is snid to have been found in 1880 at
the Sann bridge, one hours journey from the village of St,
Peter,* It is a light leek -green, and resembles the Ka wa-
ll awa of New Zealand. Five other boulders or pebbles
have been found at Graz, either in the bed of the Mur, or
in rubble derived from this, within the town limit s.+
These resemble very closely that from the Sann river, so
much so that there is scarcely a doubt that this also comes
from the valley of the Mur, as Berwerfcli suggests.
Benverth also remarks: u since it lias been demonstrated
that nephrite boulders of a particular type occur in I lie
Mur river region, we may confidently expect the discovery
there of nephrite in situ . The mineral will be found prob-
ably in very thin layers or fiat pieces in the mountains of
nietamorphic schists.”

Down to the present time no true jadeite has been dis-
covered in situ in Europe. Penfield^ lias described a
massive jadeitedike mineral from St. Marcel in Piedmont,
which apparently occurs in situ. It is described as ”an
interwoven aggregate of prismatic crystals, resembling in
structure a rather coarse jadeite. The material is very

* Meyer. Abluuid. Naturw. Ges. Isis in Dresden. I 1 . 77, 1883.

+ Mey er. i t th . A n throp . Ges. W i en , X 1 II . p , 2 16 , 1 883 .

Berwerth. Ann. Hof mm. Wien. Ill, p. 79, 1888.

Berwerth, Arm. Hof mm. Wien. XIII. p. 115, 1899.

Meyer. Das Globus. LXXV. May 6, 1899.

| Penheld. Anur\ Jour . Set. (4), Vol. XLYI. p. 291, 1893.

JADE AS A MINERAL.

24 5

tough, and the color a sort of ash gray.” The specific
gravity varied from 8.257 to 3,382* and the analysis
resembled those of other jadeites. Boulders of this had
been previously found at the locality, and were analysed
by Damotir, * who also analysed a jadeite f forming a
small vein in quartzite at St. Marcel. It is of interest
to note that glaucophane schists are found in this region,
recalling the similar occurrence at Tammaw in Burma.
Another specimen is described by Damour| as having
come from Monte Viso, in Piedmont, There has been
much discussion about this piece, but there seems to be
no reason for doubting that it is a true jadeite and comes
from tliis region, Meyer § reports the finding of two
boulders of jadeite on the shores of Lake Neuenburg,
Canton of Freiburg, Switzerland. They are green and
resemble the material of some of the Swiss stone imple-
ments. A pebble found by Damourl at Quchy, near
Lausanne, on the shore of Lake Geneva,. is also un-
doubtedly true jadeite.

NOKTII AMERICA.

Mr. G. P. Merrill, of the U. S. National Museum, has
written a paper on the occurrence of jade in America for
Mr. Bishop, which has been used in the following pages.

Alaska.

u Various aboriginal objects, principally hammers,
cutting implements, and small ornaments, made of nephrite
and jadeite from the western coast of America, have been
known to archaeologists for many years, but it is only
recently that the exact source from which any of the
material was derived has been discovered.

u The late Professor S, F. Baird, who took a great
interest in the source of these materials, urged Lieu tenant
GL M. Stoney, who in 1884 was preparing to explore the

* Dam our. Bull. Soc. Min. Franc?. Yol. IV. p. 161, 1881.

f D&mou r. Comp tea Ben dues. Yol. XCI L p. 1313, 1881.

J Damotir. Comptes Renduea. Yol. XCI I. p. 1312, 1881.

§ Meyer. Antique Zurich, 1884. Of .Neu.Jakrh. 1885,11.6.

[ Damour. Bull. Soc. Min. France. Vol. IV. p. 161, 1881.

246

JADE AS A MINERAL.

Kowak river of Alaska, to make a special effort to ascer-
tain whence this material comes, and to obtain specimens/ ’

Lieutenant Stoney discovered the locality, the so-called
Jade Mountain, about 160 miles above the mouth of the
Kowak river, in Lat, 67° 05' IN",, and Long, 158° 15' W.
The mountain is described by Stoney as being bright green
in color and from 1000 to 1500 feet high.

The material brought back by Stoney in 1884 was shown
by Merrill * to be serpentine, but on his second visit he
secured true nephrite. Stoney, unfortunately, does not
describe the geology of the occurrence, but merely speaks
of the occurrence of shale and serpentine along with the
jade, and that the latter crops out on the surface.

This locality is probably identical with that spoken of
by E. W. Nelson, f as the source of the material of the
jade implements in use by the Innuits of Kotzebue Sound,
and which they all declared came from a steep hill ascend-
ing from cue of the rivers. Nelson also mentions jade celts
in use among the Indians of (lie Yukon about Nulato, the
rough material of which they claim is found upon the side
of a mountain about twenty-five miles from Nulato. He
also states, on the authority of the natives, that jade
occurs in the mountains on the western part of the Kaviak
Peninsula near Bering Strait. There are also indications
that it is found near Bristol Bay. Nelson speaks of a few
jade fragments being seen by him on the Siberian shore of
Bering Strait, but was informed that they came from the
American side.

Specimens of the jade brought back by Stoney, as well
as numerous implements from Alaska, have been examined
by Clarke and Merrill £ and shown to be t rue nephrite,
which closely resembles that of Siberia, New Zealand, and
some of the lake dwellings in Switzerland.

In this connection it must be mentioned that the Bishop
Collection contains a large pebble of nephrite (No. 13391)

* Merrill, Science, March 13, 1885.

fE. W. Nelson. Letter to Professor Baird. Proc. IL S . Nut. Mu seam,
Yol. VI, p. 426, 1883,

f Clarke and Merrill. Free. U. S. Nat . Museum, 1888, p. 115.

from Sulphur Creek, a tributary of Indian river, about
forty miles from Dawson.

British Columbia.

In 18S7 Dr. G. M. Dawson* announced the finding at
Lytton and Yale on the lower part of the Frazer river in
British Columbia, of two partially worked nephrite
boulders of such a nature as to show that they had been
derived from the immediate banks of the river, where they
had been doubtless deposited by t lie river itself. This
material was studied by Professor B. J. Harrington f and
shown to be a true nephrite, and partially indentical with
that of Alaska. A number of jade celts from graves near
Lytton have lately been examined by Professor J. F.
Kenipj: and shown to be nephrite. Outcrops of this are
said to occur “in a creek tributary to the Frazer river
some miles above Lytton.”

Boulders of nephrite have also been found by Dr.
Dawson ^ and Mr. Ogilvie on the Upper Lewes river, near
the Alaskan boundary. Dr. Dawson says: “Though not
actually observed in place, the material is evidently
derived from the altered (metamorphosed) volcanic rocks,
probably of paleozoic age which are abundant in the dis-
trict.” It is also reported that nephrite has been found in
Miles Canon and at the Kwikpak mouth of the Yukon. |j

NEW ZEALAND.

The first notice of the occurrence of jade in New Zealand
is in 1774, *[’ when Hawksworfch speaks of the natives rising
for axes and planes a Li green, talc-like stone, which is not
only hard but also tough*”

The next author to mention it is J. R. Foster,** who says

* Canadian Record of Science. VoL II, p. 364, 1 886-7*
f Harrington. Tran a, Ray. S&c. Canada. 1830, See, III. p. 61.

| Kemp. Mem. Acad . Mm. Nat. Hut. Tol. IL Anthrop, I, pp. 132-3,
1899.

| Dawson. Science. VoL XI, p. 186, 1888,

| Dana. System, of Mineralogy. P.897, 1899,

l! Cf\ Fischer, op. cit. , p* 184.

** Of. Fischer, op. cit., p. 1,35.

248

JADI5 AS A MINERAL.

that according to the unanimous testimony of the natives,
it occurs “beyond the inner part of Charlotte Sound,
towards the south-west.” He also states that he found
the rock at the small island of Motuaro, in “dykes,”
some two inches thick, partly vertical and partly oblique,
in a mountain of gray talcose rock.

The occurrence of nephrite, which the natives call
pounamu, in New Zealand, is described rather meagrely
by von Hochstetter,* from whose paper the following
extracts are taken :

“All New Zealand nephrite comes from the west coast
of South Island, where it is found partly in situ , but
mostly in the form of boulders and rolled masses, in river
beds, and on the sea shore. No nephrite is found on the
east side of the South Island, or on the North Island.
The South is called Te Wahi Pounamu, i. e Jadeland, or
the region of jade.

“But little is known thus far regarding the occurrence
of the mineral in situ. The information given by the
natives and others indicates that there are three principal
places where pounamu is found.

“ The first is situated on the Aral] aura or Brunner River,
about fifteen miles from its mouth. The natives say that
the nephrite projects from the river bed, several feet thick,
in the form of an overturned canoe, standing upright.
They therefore call the locality Te Whaka (the Canoe).
The rock is said to be so hard and compact that they
cannot break it, but most content themselves with pieces
which they find in the liver and on the sea-shore. The
natives describe the country-rock as a green schist, prob-
ably talcose or chlorite schist or serpentine.

“A second locality lies south of Mt. Cook in the neigh-
borhood of Jackson’s Bay, or on Milford Sound.

“Dr. Hector, the geologist of the Province of Otago,
who investigated Milford Sound during an expedition to
the west coast, says in his report, f regarding the occnr-

* Von Hocbstetter. Sitzber. Akad. Wis.i. Wien. XLIX. pp. 466-480, 1864.

f Geological Expedition to the West Const of Otago. Provincial Government
Gazette. 19613, p, 4G0.

JADE AS A MINERAL.

24$

rence at Milford Sound: u We anchored for a short time
in Anita Bay (by Milford Sound), for the purpose of
examining the shore whence the Maoris obtain jade or
greenstone for their ornaments and weapons. This rock is
found among the beach pebbles in rolled pieces, together
with pieces of hornblende-gneiss and felsite. Although
T found many boulders of jade, I could not discover the
original place whence they were derived. But a thick
dyke of feisite crops out back of the shore, in contact with
green hovneblende-rock and serpentine , and since the
feisite near the corner of the dyke contains green grains
with the characters of this mineral, it is probable that the
jade has been formed in nodules and irregular masses
along the contact .’ 1 *

' L A third locality is said to be Lake Poiinanm, in Otago
Province, which is identical with that given on the maps
as Lake Wakafcip.

1 ‘ Some pebbles and boulders of nephrite are found along
the whole west coast from Cape Foul wind on the north as
far as beyond Milford Sound to the south. I myself found
a small knobby, unrolled piece, three inches in diameter,
among the pebbles on the shore of Current Basin, north of
Nelson, where a thick bed of serpentine (the sur pen tine of
Dun Mountain) occurs, accompanied by various schists ;
L <?., in the same geological conditions ns those described
by Dr, Hector at Milford Sound, where also serpentine
occurs in the vicinity . 15

Von Haast + says : u Nephrite is also found in the gneiss-
granite formation on the west coast in Greenstone Creek,
tlie Arahaura, and some other localities. I have never
observed it in situ, but the Canterbury museum possesses
a specimen of nephrite to which a small portion of the bed*
rock, chlorite schist, is still attached . 55

Of the Milford Sound locality Ul rich $ says : iL It is a nar-

* Chapman {Tmna. iY Z. Inst, XXIV. p, 525, 1801) says of Hector’s
search ; 11 lie foiled to find the dyke, which was my experience thirteen years
later, but I am now informed that it is higher up the shore,”

f Yon Haast, GeoL of the Provinces of Canterbury and Westland. Christ-
church. 1879, p. 255.

I Cf. Fischer. Mitth. Anthr , Ges f Wien. VIII. p, 106, 1879.

25U

JADE AS A MINERAL.

row boulder bank at the foot of a mountain, overgrown
with crowded shrubs, and which is accessible only to the
Maoris. The massive rock seems to be a syenite, and
nephrite probably occurs in small veins or pockets high up
on the slope.”

JYew Caledonia.

Axes from New Caledonia have been known for a long
time. They are green in color, and are apparently of
nephrite. This occurs in situ at the west coast of the
Island of Uen, off the southeastern point of New Cale-
donia, and probably elsewhere.* The occurrence has been
described by Garment

“The euphotides (gabbros) of the Koutoure Bay region
differ in appearance. They pass in to diorites with large
feldspar and hornblende crystals. Towards Nogonneto one
finds rocks of a beautiful green, translucent at the edges,
with a somewhat greasy luster, a splintery fracture, but
still retaining, notwithstanding this changed appearance,
the greenish, foliated aspect of the euphotidein some parts
of its beds. It is easily seen that the beds of these dif-
ferent rocks are unconform able.

“ These new beds are only slightly homogeneous in com-
position. Certain parts, compact and green, are of about
the hardness of glass : others, on the contrary, are very
soft. Their structure is schistose, with very thin undulat-
ing white or green scales, like serpentine. This rock
occurs here in conjunction with serpentine schists, veins of
impure quartz, and compact feldspar. This fine white
stone, with green veins, easily fusible before the blow-pipe,
has many of the characters of hatchet jade.”

The varieties distinguished by the natives are very
numerous, and are only true nephrite in part, some being
undoubtedly serpentine. They have been described at
some length by von Hochs tetter % and Reverend J. W.
Stack. §

* Cf. Meyer. Jadeit vnd JVephrit Olgecte. Pnrt III. pp. 53 ft.

f Quoted in Meyer, op k eit . , p, 56.

% Yon Hoelistetter, pjj. cit>, pp, 409-475.

% Of. Chapman. Trans. JS T . Z. Institute . YoL XXI Y. p. 513, 1891.

JADE AS A MINERAL,

WORKED OBJECTS AND UNCERTAIN LOCALITIES.

It would be out of place here to give a list of all the
localities where worked objects of jade have been found.
The catalogue of the Bishop Collection is sufficient evi-
dence of their number and variety, and gives a practically
complete list. An attempt will be made to indicate only
those cases which may have a bearing on the main subject
of this paper, viz., the geological occurrence of jade.

Apart from China a large number of jade objects have
been found in Asia. The most noteworthy is the huge
monolith of dark green nephrite which is placed on the
tomb of Timur in the G-ur-Emir mosque at Samarkand.
The provenance of the material is as yet unknown.
Schoetensack* describes a dark green nephrite disc from
Manas, on the north slope of the TMati Shan range, and
remarks on its resemblance to the nephrite of the Samarkand
block. A good-sized boulder, pierced with a hole and with
traces of lacquer and gilding, is in the Bishop Collection
(No. 13500), It is said to come from Manas or Barkul, and
was received from Dr. S. W* Bushel! of Peking.

Tibet is said also to be a locality for jade, though there
is some doubt on this point. It is very probable that by
“Tibet” is meant Little Tibet or Baltistan, which lies
northwest of Cashmere and southwest of, and not far from,
Khotan, near the Karakorum mountains. The large size
of the blocks said to have been brought from Tibet by cer-
tain well-known travellers would seem to exclude Tibet
proper*

Schoetensack examined a specimen said to have come
from Tibet, and showed that it closely resembled typical
Burmese material. Fischer, + Cohen 4 and Bauer § also
describe jadeites from this region, and there are several
specimens in the Bishop Collection.

* Schoeteusnck. Imutg. Dm , Freiburg, Berlin, 1885, p. 2,

| Fischer, op. ciL , p. 235.

X Cohen, 1 Veim Jahtb. fur Min., 1884, i, p. 71.

§ Bauer, 2feue$ Jahrb. fur Min., 18%, L p. 85

2o2

JADE AS A MINERAL*

According . to Bauer the ts Tibetan ■’ jadeite closely
resembles that of Tam maw in Burma, showing also the
same cataclastic structure. Its most striking feature is the
presence of nephelite, a small amount of albite being also
visible. The bearing of this on the question of the origin
of jadeite has already been discussed in this work by Pro-
fessor Pirsson.

At SchliemaniTs excavations at the site of Troy in Asia
Minor, a number of hatchets, both of nephrite and jadeite,
were found. A Hatchet and a cylinder from Mesopotamia
have also been reported, as well as a jadeite hatchet from
Sardis, in Asia Minor. A small number of worked jade
objects have also come from Japan, but probably in the
course of commerce from China, as we have the explicit
statement of Mr. Wada, formerly professor of Mineralogy
at the University of Tokio, and ex-Director-General of the
Geological Survey of Japan, that jade is not found geo-
logically in that country.

In Europe very many objects have been found both of
nephrite and jadeite. Implements of nephrite have been
found in abundance in the ancient lake-villages of Switzer-
land, as for instance at Lakes Constance, Zurich, NeuL
chatel, and Pfaffikoti. These are usually of a dark leek-
green color and foliated structure. Very few nephrite
implements have been found north of Switzerland. A few
have been found in Belgium, and a few in Germany. Three
have been reported from France, some from Italy (chieily
Calabria), and one or two from Greece. It is seen, there-
fore, that the nephrite objects of Europe are almost exclu-
sively confined to the Swiss localities.

Objects of jadeite are much more widely distributed, and
may be broadly divided into the large flat celts of north-
western Germany, France (especially Morbihan), and Bel-
gium, and the small polished celts of western Switzerland,
Italy, and the Rhine Valley of southern Germany. In the
lake-villages, on the contrary, jadeite implements are rare.
Besides the countries mentioned above, jadeite implements
have been found in Denmark, Spain, and Portugal.

In America, as lias been already said, the only localities

JADE

MINERAL

for nephrite are Alaska and British Columbia. It may be
added that Meyer* mentions the finding of a piece of
rough jadeite in Louisiana, though, from the known geo-
logical features of this State, it must have been brought
from a distance.

It is not known to me whether any nephrite or jadeite
objects have been found in the western parts of the United
States, though, it may be mentioned here, that some of the
conditions in California would seem to be favorable for the
discovery of jadeite there.

In Mexico, soon after its discovery, the Spaniards
became acquainted with a hard green stone, highly valued
by the natives, and called by them “chalchihiiitl.”
Although a number of different substances were probably
embraced under this head, yet a large number of objects
of jade which have been found in Mexico proves tliat the
ancient inhabitants were acquainted with this material.
These have been examined by a number of authorities f
and are in general of jadeite, though a few seem to be of
nephrite. Most of them come from the State of Oaxaca.

Central America also furnishes objects of jadeite which
closely resembles that of Mexico. Specimens investigated
by Clarke and Merrill X come from Costa Rica, Nicaragua,
and Guatemala. Those from Costa Rica are not only the
most numerous, but also the liuest.

Pebbles of a green, opaque, jade-like stone, capable of a
very tine polish, are said to be found on the beach at Port
Royal, Jamaica. § These are said to be the same stone out
of which the Indians made their hatchets.

Several celts and an idol are reported by Fischer and
Meyer as coining from various islands of the West Indies,
but their real provenance seems to be uncertain.

From South America celts and other objects have been

* Meyer. Das AvslancL June 4, 1883*
f Damotir . Co mp tes Mend net. X C I L p . 1313, 1881*

Meyer. 1 fepkrit it ml Jadeil Objects.

Clarke and Merrill. Proe. l r . 8. Mtt, Mu6, t 1888, p. 121*

Arzruni. Zeit, for Kryat. 1885, p. 540.
t Clarke and Merrill., op. cit . , p. 124.

17 tutor n of Jamaica, by Sir Ifans Sloaae, 1820.

JADE AS A MINERAL.

254

described by Fi, seller and Meyer. They come from a few
localities in Colombia, Venezuela, and Brazil, and are all of
nephrite. A green stone, called Amazon-stone, is men-
tioned by several writers, as far back as Button and Hum-
boldt, as coining from Guiana and Brazil, but its nature is
uncertain. An olive-green jade is also stated to have been
found on the sea-coast of Peru by La Condamine.* A stone
axe brought by Humboldt from Peru was thought by
Fischer + to be probably jadeite.

From New Guinea (Papua) a number of axes of jadeite
and chloromelanite have been described. 'Whether the
raw material is derived from that island or not is not known.
It is of interest to note, however, that chlorite schists have
been noticed at Humboldt Bay,:}: so that it seems possible
that they are of native origin.

Implements and ornaments of jade have been reported
from Java, Otaheiti, the Marquesas, New Hebrides, and
elsewhere in the Pacific, but of their occurrence and real
provenance practically nothing is known. The same is
true of the few objects reported from various parts of
Africa.

GENERAL DISCUSSION.

Distribution of Jade.

From the facts regarding the occurrence of jade set forth
in the preceding pages, we may draw the following conclu-
sions as to its distribution :

In the first place it is evident that neither nephrite, nor
jadeite, is of common occurrence. This is especially true
of jadeite. So far as known at present nephrite occurs in
situ only in the K’nn Lun Mountains, Central Siberia,
Silesia, Alaska, New Zealand, and New Caledonia, and
probably India ; while localities, indicated by boulders and
worked objects found, probably remain to be discovered in
Sweden and elsewhere in Europe, as well as in China, the
Tian Shan Mountains, the other points in Asia. Jadeite

* Button. Hist. Nat. (Ua .1 fin. IV. p. IT, 1798.

| Fischer., op. eit., p. Ififi.

+ Meyer. Jadeit und Hepkrit Ohjeete, p. 51 ff.

JADE AS A MINERAL.

255

has so far been found in situ in Burma only, though pos-
sibly also in India, and Little Tibet, and jadeite-like rocks
occur in Piedmont, while worked objects point to localities
in ^rexico and Central America, New Guinea, and Europe.
It is decidedly unfortunate that all of these known locali-
ties, with the exception of Silesia, are in regions difficult
of access, and in which the geological conditions are com-
paratively little known.

A second conclusion is that nephrite and jadeite ave, as
a rule, found to occur independently of each other in sepa-
rate localities. It is true that there are exceptions. Some
of the sections examined by hidings and already described
in this volume, as well as the chemical analyses, show the
the presence of both minerals in the same specimen.
Sehoeteiisack * describes specimens brought back from
Turkistan by von Schlagintweit which consist partly of
jadeite and partly of nephrite ; Bauer + speaks of u jadeite
embedded with nephrite in the crystalline schists of Tur-
k is tan A; and other instances might be given.

These facts are of great interest as forming the basis of
hidings’ theory that nephrite is sometimes derived from
jadeite by secondary metamorphie processes of nvalitiza-
tion and chemical replacement. But the general statement
remains true that at certain localities nephrite predomi-
nates to the total, or almost total, exclusion of jadeite,
while elsewhere exactly the reverse holds good, jadeite
being found alone or with only very subordinate amounts
of nephrite.

The third conclusion to be drawn is, that, as compared
with nephrite, jadeite is of very rare occurrence, that is, in
situ . This is not only of great interest from an artistic
and archaeological standpoint, but is closely connected, as
we shall see, with the question of the origin of the two
minerals.

Geological Conditions of Occurrence .

Though the occurrences of jade are few and not yet, in
most cases, satisfactorily investigated, yet we are not left

* Schoetensack, op, cit. t p. 8.

f Bauer, op* cit. > p. 101. Hu refers possibly to Sclioetensack's observations.

25G

JADE AS A MISUSE AL,

In much doubt as to the genera] character of the geologi-
cal conditions. The testimony of the observations, both
in the held and with the microscope, is uminimoasly in
favor of the view that both nephrite and jadeite belong to
the series of crystalline schists. That is, they owe their
present characters to changes induced in the original rock
bodies through pressure, heat, etc., consequent oil crustal
movements, these changes being known collectively as
metamorphiq. This is a fact universally recognized by
petrographers, as is shown by the position assigned them
in all the petrographic works dealing with the subject.

For the petrographic details which lead us to this con-
clusion the reader must be referred to the papers of Id-
dings and Pirssoniu this volume, to those of Arming Bauer,
Traube, Clarke and Merrill, and others cited in the pre-
ceding pages, and to standard works on rocks, such as
those of Zirkel and Rosenbuseh.

The geological evidence is set forth in the preceding
pages, but it may be of use to summarize and make a few
remarks on the various occurrences.

As regards the Tam maw (Burma) occurrence Noetlmg Is
in some doubt as to its character. Bauer’s evidence,
however, is sufficient to remove these doubts, which are
largely due to the difficulties of observation in that region,
and to assure us that the rock belongs to a metamorphic
complex, and occurs in connection with serpentine of a
metamorphic character. Attention must again be called
to the presence here of glaucophane-schist and a horn-
blende-albite rock, the importance of which will be brought
out subsequently.

The evidence as to the jade occurrences at Rewa in India
is also conclusive. While there is doubt as to whether the
jade here is a nephrite or jadeite, yet the association at the
hill-section at Pipra is undeniably of a metamorphic char-
acter, and these localities are all in a region of gneiss.
The important feature of the occurrence of corundum with
the jade must be recalled.

The observers to whom we are indebted for our knowl-
edge of the Turkistan localities— von Schlagintweit

JADE AS

MINERAL,

Cayley, and Sfcoliczka— differ, it is true, in certain small
details. These discrepancies may be explained by the
hurried nature of their observations and by the absence of
petrographic and mineral ogical study of the materials.*
In the main, however, and in the essential features, they
are all very closely in accord ; and their observations
prove conclusively that the jade is part of an extensive
metamorphic complex, associated with gneiss and mica
and am phi bole schists,!

The observations of Jaczewski in the Sayan Mountains
in Siberia show conclusively that the nephrite occurs in a
region of argillaceous and actinolite schists, and in associ-
ation with serpentine, magnetite, and graphite. In fact,
this author states definitely that the actinolite schists
have been changed into nephrite. It would be of very
great interest to have a more detailed account of this
occurrence*

The observations and descriptions of Traube establish
clearly and in great detail the passage of gneiss and other
rocks into nephrite, in an area which is metamorphic. It
may also be mentioned that the probable derivation of the
German boulders from the metamorphic rocks of Scandi-
navia is urged with great, force by Credner.

The New Zealand, New Caledonian, Alaskan, and
British Columbian occurrences are, unfortunately, of little
use, owing to the paucity of details, but the few which are
given serve to strengthen the view that the nephrite here
is of metamorphic origin.

The Bishop Collection furnishes very good examples
which illustrate the metamorphic character of these rocks.
In the majority of the worked pieces this is not evident to
the naked eye, being visible only in thin section under the
microscope, but the large cylindrical brush-holder No.
3052 shows truces of a schistose structure. Certain of the

tomb pieces 51 (e. ff. , 13158 and 13168) show clearly a

*Cf. Beck and Mtiscliketow. Op. at.. p. TO.

\ The observations and more recent petrographic knowledge of Stollczka,
seem to show that the ‘ ' greenstones ” of von Schlaghitw'eit are really amphih-
ole schists, and not igneous thorite.

258

JADE AS A MINERAL*

streaked mixture of colors, closely approaching that pro-
duced by shearing forces.

A very distinct and well-marked schistosity is, however,
shown by many of the archeological pieces (e. //,, 13221,
13227, 13229, 13230, 13243, 13251 and 13429), where the
schistose structure lias evidently been taken advantage of
in fashioning the article. This structure is especially well
brought out by weathering (Nos. 13227, 13229, 13251).

The same structure is very clearly seen in many of the
rough pieces (<s. r/., 13180, 13210, 13212, 13334, 13335), the
last two especially {both from Alaska) exhibiting it very
beautifully, both on the rough surfaces and on the polished
faces, on the latter being seen the tine, wavy lines produced
by cutting across the corrugations*

Discussion of the Origin of Jade.

This subject has been already dealt with in this volume,
by Pirsson and hidings, but the facts brought out by the
review of the geological occurrences lead me to make a
few remarks on this topic. The me tain orpine character of
both species may be accepted without question. This is
an important point gained, but only throws the question
of their origin back one step. Before undergoing meta-
morphism what were they ? Were they sedimentary or
igneous rocks ?

As far as jadeite is concerned, the clear and logical
paper of Pirsson, together with the remarks of hidings on
this subject (both having been written independently of
each other), can leave no doubt that jadeite is a metamor-
phosed soda-rich, igneous rock, originally a nepheline-
syenite, a phonolite, or a tinguaite. Tins view has been so
forcibly brought out by the two writers just mentioned
that I need add nothing to their remarks on this point.

With nephrite, however, the case is quite different. In
chemical composition it does not, like jadeite, resemble
very closely any of the igneous rocks, being distinguished
chiefly through its very low alumina; though there is
much analogy in this respect with the websterite* of

* G. II . Williams. Amer. Geot VI. pp, 42 and 44, 1890.

Maryland and North Carolina, which is an igneous diop-
side-bronzite rock with granitic structure. It also resem-
bles, in general features, the pyroxeuites, etc,, though in
these, as a rule, the content in alumina is much higher,

Arzruni, it will be recalled, divided the nephrites into
primary nephrites and those derived from pyroxene by
uralitization ; by pyroxene meaning not jadeite, but diop-
side. Id dings shows that in many cases nephrite is un-
doubtedly derived from jadeite* He does not, however,
deny that it may not be so derived, but may in some cases
be the product o£ metamorphism of an original diopside or
am plii bole rock, itself igneous or me tarn orphic. In such a
case it preserves essentially the chemical character of the
rock which produced it.

Traube's descriptions leave little or no doubt that at the
Silesian localities the nephrite is not derived from jadeite
by metasomatism (the chemical interchange of matter), but
that it. is here derived from either an orignal pyroxene
(diopside) rock, or partly, as far as can be judged, through
the further metamorphism of an amphibolic rock. At the
Indian localities and in Siberia the evidence goes to show
that here also the nephrite is not derived from jadeite;
since at both localities specific mention is made of horn-
blende rock passing into jade.

It is true that the chemical analyses of material from
these localities, as well as from New Zealand and New
Caledonia, show small amounts of soda, which, according
to Clarke’s reductions of the analyses, is present in mole-
cules of glaucophane and riebeckite, the amounts of these
being always very little. It is to be remembered, however,
that soda is almost constantly present In igneous rocks,
though sometimes to a very small extent, even in the
pyroxenites and other basic rocks, so that its presence
here is no valid argument for an origin from jadeite. In
all these cases there seems to be little reason to invoke
such a decided and complete interchange of substance as
that Involved in the change of jadeite into nephrite.

At the K’iiti Lun localities, however, the case is differ-
Here the observations of Schoetensaok and Iddings,

360

JADE AS A MINERAL,

as well us the chemical analyses, show that jadeite is pres-
ent along with the nephrite ; and the microscope showed
hidings that there really had been such a passage of one
into the other. In fact, the best examples found by Id-
dings of a change of jadeite into nephrite are specimens
from Turkistan and China, the material of the worked
ob jects of which latter country being undoubtedly derived,
at least in the greater number of instances, from Turkistan
and Burma, In Burma, also, there is evidence that the
jadeite has to a certain extent been changed into neph-
rite.

In this connection it is of interest to note that all the
three observers of the K’un Lon quarries, von Schlagin-
tweit, Cayley, and Stoliczka, speak variously of an
“altered” or a “soft, friable substance — evidently a prod-
uct of decomposition by percolating water,” “a white,
powdery clay,” or “veins of a pure white, apparently
zeoiitic mineral,” appearing either between the nephrite
and the schist or in close connection with it. A similar
substance is also mentioned by Noetling as occurring at
Tam maw along with the jadeite.

Now, in the replacement of alumina and soda by mag-
nesia and lime, which is necessitated by the change of
jadeite to nephrite, the two last would have been provided
in abundance by the amphibolic schists and the serpen-
tine* The alumina and soda would not entirely disappear,
but traces of them should be met with somewhere. These
white or light-colored bands, then, may reasonably be sup-
posed to be derived from the replaced alumina and soda of
the original jadeite. They may be zeoiitic, as suggested by
Stoliczka, in which case they might he largely natrolite,
a hydrous silicate of soda and alumina; or they may be,
and more probably are, ehieliy one of the kaolins, hydrous
silicates of alumina alone, the soda having been removed
bj r solution. This is, of course, largely hypothetical,
since we have no detailed chemical or mineralogical de-
scription of these bands, but the suggestion seems to be
a reasonable one. It is to be remarked, in this connec-
tion, that there is no mention of the presence of such

JADE AS A MINERAL.

561

material at either of the three localities where the
nephrite is evidently not derived from jadeite.

Having thus gained a general and probably fairly
correct notion of the origin of jadeite and nephrite, one
of the reasons for the rarity of their occurrence becomes
evident. Leaving apart the metamorphic processes
involved, of the exact nature of which for the production
of the characteristic qualities of jade we are not yet in
a position to speak, we can examine the matter from the
point of view of the rocks from which jade is derived.

In regard to jadeite, the nepheline-syenites and phono-
lites from which it is derived are among the more rarely
occurring of all the igneous rocks ; so that its rarity
naturally follows. Following the same line of argument,
the occurrence of jadeite-derived nephrite would naturally
be also rare, possibly even more so than jadeite. Igneous
rocks from which nephrite could be derived without radi-
cal change of substance, such as the websterites, cortland-
ites, and other pyroxenites, hornblendites, or peridot! tes,
are also rare, though occurring more frequently than the
nepheline-syenite family. The amphibolites and other
such schists are also of extremely common occurrence.
We would consequently expect to find nephrites more
often than jadeites, and the fact that they are so found is,
in a way, evidence that in The majority of cases nephrite
is not derived from jadeite.

Probable Localities elsewhere.

While we are dealing with the localities of jade, it will
probably be of value to those interested in jade to indicate
where nephrite and jadeite may reasonably fee expected to
occur in situ, and to point out the rocks which are likely
to occur in connection with them, and whose presence may
indicate their possible discovery.

It may be stated with confidence that both are only to
be looked for in situ in regions of crystalline schists, and
more especially, perhaps, in regions of amphibole schists ;
though they are known to occur also in connection with
gneiss and mica and chlorite schists.

262

JADE AS A MINERAL,

Nephrite is undoubtedly far more abundant than jade-
ite 5 a point which lias been already touched on. and it
would naturally be looked for in regions where so-called
basic rocks occur, L e * , rocks high in iron, lime, and mag-
nesia. On the hypothesis that it is ultimately derived
from igneous rocks, we would expect to find it in meta-
inorphic regions where gabbros occur, as in Silesia, or
regions where olivine rocks or serpentine are found, as in
New Zealand, or along with pyroxenites or hornblendites.

It would take up too much space to give a list of the
localities of such rocks, and, furthermore, it seems prob-
able that it will be found in quantity only in regions at
present but little known. It must be confessed, however,
that its discovery at Jordansnuih] and Rei chens tem shows
that it may be found eventually at localities with which
we are supposed to be well acquainted, as, for example,
possibly the Adirondack region of New York State, and
North Carolina,

Jadeite) being derived from rocks of the nepheline-
syenite family, will, as has already been pointed out, be
much rarer than nephrite. if nepheline-syenites or
ancient phono! ites occur in metaniorphic areas, and if
their advent is prior to the general metaniorphism, the
occurrence of jadeite would be not unexpected.

There are, however, two additional facts of some interest
to be noted here. Tn the first place, we have already seen
that glaucophane-schists occur in connection with jadeite
in Burma and Piedmont. Although this group of schists
has been but little investigated, it seems probable that
they are the result of the metaniorphism of basic, igneous
rocks, of the general composition of gabbro, which are
sometimes found in association with the family of the
nepheline-syenites. These schists are of a peculiar blue
color, often running into epidotic and garnetiferous rocks,
so as to be usually easily recognisable, and their presence
in any region would lead us to hope for the occurrence of
jadeite in situ.

These peculiar schists are of very rare occurrence, and
their chief localities may be mentioned. These are Syra,

JADE AS A MINERAL*

and other islands of the iEgean Sea, together with various
localities along the east coast of Greece ; Isle de Groix in
Brittany (Morbihan),* Piedmont, Croatia, Corsica, and
Andalusia; Island of Shikoku, Japan ; and in California*

The second point to be mentioned is a possible connec-
tion between the occurrence of cor unci tun and jade.
Corundum occurs as a primary constituent of various
igneous rocks, in crystalline schists, and iit limestones*
The igneous rocks in which it occurs differ considerably.
In some cases they are very basic, as the peridotites of
North Carolina and the cortlandites, etc., of Peekskill,
N. Y, But the rocks which are of especial interest to ns
here are the neplieline-syenites and other alkaline phi-
tonic rocks* Such corundum -bearing rocks occur in the
Urals, t in Ontario, £ in India, § and elsewhere, though
they are very rare.

A discussion of all these localities would lead us too
far, and we need only note here that the soda-rich rocks
are generally high in alumina and more or less apt to carry
corundum, though its occurrence in them is as yet, and
probably will always be, a great rarity. It follows, how-
ever, that corundum may be (but by no means necessarily
is) an indication of the presence of soda- rich rocks, and,
lienee, in metam orphic regions, of possible jadeite.

As an instance of such an association, we may note that
south of the jade mines of Tainmaw in Burma corundum
occurs as gem material in various localities, being found
in a limestone which Judd has shown to be probably
derived from an original igneous rock.f These rocks
were basic, and are correlated by Holland with the corun-
dum-bearing anorthifce rock of the Salem district in
Madras, and possibly with those of Ceylon. They seem

*The finding of worked jndeite and chloromebmite objects at Morbihan
and Dordogne is very suggestive in this connection.

fMorozewicz. Tschermak's Min. Pet. Nitih. XVIII. p. 215, 1809.

t Coleman, Jour, of G eel VIL p. 437. 1899.

§ Mu n ual of the G eulogy of India . Eco n om . G eol. Par t I. T. H. Holland.
Corundum. Pp* 11 and 37. 1898.

I Judd and Brown* Proc. Roy . Soc , T No, 34 5 , 1695. CL Ame?\ Jour. &ci. (4),
Vol. I. 64 r 1896.

to correspond closely to the corundum-anortliite “ kysh-
ty mites ’ 5 of the Urals, recently described by Morozewicz
in the paper already cited. These are high in lime, and
are basic phases of rocks very rich in soda and alumina.
Possibly, as suggested by Holland, the Rewa occurrences
are of a similar character, in which case the jade would
be a jadeite ; though, as already noted, the probabilities
seem to be in favor of its being nephrite, especially since
corundum is known to occur in basic, soda-free rocks.

It must be repeated that all the above is highly specula-
tive, and is inserted chiefly as being of suggestive interest ;
but, from the facts given, the conclusion may be drawn
that the occurrence of nepheli ue-syenites, glaucophane-
schists, or corundum, in metamorphic regions, would sug-
gest to the traveller the possible presence of jadeite.
The hypothetical character of these remarks, however,
emphasizes the extremely scanty and unsatisfactory char-
acter of our knowledge regarding the occurrence and
origin both of jadeite and nephrite, and shows the neces-
sity of much more detailed and careful observations
before we attempt to generalize with confidence.

MINERALS SOMETIMES MISTAKEN FOR JADE.

While it is the province of this volume to treat simply
of the mineral Jade (nephrite and jadeite), it has been
thought well to make mention of such minerals as are
frequently mistaken for jade, and at the same time to
furnish a few ready and simple means of detecting them
without injury to the article examined.

The materials that have been mistaken fur nephrite and
jadeite are of three kinds :

1st, Natural minerals that resemble nephrite or jadeite
in color, toughness, or lustre ;

2d. Minerals that have been stained or colored to
imitate jades, sometimes with considerable success.

3d. Artificial imitations of jade, such as the glass mix-
tures.

The natural minerals that resemble jade, either nephrite
or jadeite, and have been confused with them, may be
grouped in three classes :

(A) Those composed of silica alone, /. e., forms of
quartz, chalcedony, or jasper. In these the color may be
due either to the presence of small amounts of oxide of
iron or of chromium, or to the mechanical inclusion of con-
siderable amounts of other green minerals, such as pro-
chlorite, delessite, etc. These are all readily distinguish-
able from true jades.

(B) Compounds of silica, l. e.> the silicates. This is
a very numerous and complicated body of minerals, to
which both jadeite and nephrite themselves belong ; many
of them are closely related to each other and to the true
jades, and are similar, not only in aspect, but in structure
and composition. Hence, there are several members of
the silicate group that are not easily distinguishable from

26 a

tfKi

- 1

266

JADE AS A MINERAL.

jade, and their discrimination requires great care and
experience. Others, while of similar aspect, can be readily
determined,

(C) Minerals which do not contain silica— phosphates
and carbonates. These are few— turquoise, malachite, and
inossotite— all easy of recognition as not jades, though
resembling some of them in color.

Among sill the minerals here described as having been
confounded with true jade, or liable to be confounded with
it, only a few are incapable of ready distinction by the
collector, by means of tests that are simple and easy. The
hardness and specific gravity will decide in most cases,
without recourse to any more elaborate methods.

As has been shown in the preceding pages, the true
jades range in hardness from 0 to 7, and in density from
2.9 to 3.4. Jadeite is the harder and the heavier species,
its hardness being 6.5 to 7, and its density from 3.20 to
3.41, as extremes ; nephrite having a hardness of 6 to 6,5,
and a density between 2.90 and 3.18. Any minerals,
therefore, that fall outside of these limits, in either
respect, are not jades.

All the forms of quartz have a hardness of about 7, but
their specific gravity is from 2.59 to 2,66 ; some of the
jaspers are at times a little higher; but much below
nephrite, while the hardness compares only with the
hardest jadeite. To the touch, also, there is a resistance
of surface that is quite different from the smooth,
unctuous feeling of the jades. Beryl, or emerald, with
a specific gravity of 2.06 to 2.80, is far harder than any
jadeite — ' 7,5 to 8 — easily scratching the hardest jade speci-
mens. Amazon-stone, though in hardness about the same
as nephrite, 6 to 6.5, has a density of but 2.54 to 2.57,
Labradorite is a little heavier, 2.70 to 2.72, but much less
hard, 5 to 6. Any of the feldspar group that might possibly
be encountered will fall between these limits ; and their
strongly marked cleavage-tendency, often visible, and
their total absence of fibrous or matted structure, are
characteristic features of distinction.

JADE AS A MINERAL.

Among minerals confounded with jade, perhaps the first
place, both historically and in closeness of resemblance,
belongs to that known as Saussurlte. It lias been called
jade tenace and. jade de Suussure , and is a compact, tough,
and heavy mineral, with splintery fracture, in hardness (0.8
to 7) and density (3 to 3.4) almost identical with jadeite ;
ranging from very translucent to nearly opaque, and in
color from white to gray, grayish -green, and bluish-green.
It was first noticed by H. B. de Saussure, in 1780 ( Voy,
Alpes , I, 112), and by him called jade; the name Satts-
surite was given to it in 1806, by his son Theodore {Jour.
Mines , XIX, 205). It is a Swiss mineral, occurring largely

in boulders distributed in the glacial period over
Geneva region and the Rhone vallev. Guvot traced these
to their source, WO miles distant, in the clniin of the
Saasgrat. The late Professor T. S. limit, in ISoS, recog-
nized it as a soda-bearing variety of the mineral zoisite,
and it is generally so regarded. But it is an alteration
product, and, like all such materials, is not constant or
homogeneous in either structure or composition. Zoisite
is generally present in it, but sometimes replaced by epi-
dote, while more or less feldspar and other accessory
minerals are intermingled. Tt lias been derived from feld-
spar by a chemical process known as " saussuritizationd'
The texture Is often so exceedingly fine-grained as almost
to defy microscopic determination of its components.

Next in point of resemblance to jade is the mineral
known as Fibrolite , called in the United States sillimanite.
It was a favorite material with prehistoric man in Central
Europe, and has been mistaken fur jadeite, which it closely
approaches in aspect and structure. The density, 3.23 to
3/24, and the hardness, G.o to 7, as with saussurite, are
about the same; when in a fibrous form it Is densely
compact and very tenacious, almost as much so as nephrite.
It is a pure silicate of alumina {silica 30.8, alumina 03.2),
often occurring in radiating or blade-like crystals, and
passing into fibrous and massive. In this latter form it
was largely wrought in prehistoric times into implements,
multitudes of which have been found in France and Spain,

268

JADE AS A MINERAL.

and described by Damon r, Clarke, Quiroga, and others.
To distinguish it from jade, otherwise than by analysis, it
may be observed to have a visibly fibrous structure, less
confused than nephrite, and less crystallization than
jadeite, a lustre vitreous and not horn-like, as with ne-
phrite, and a whiter aspect, inclining to pinkish or flesh
color.

In Alaska, the natives of the coast have used quite
extensively, for a variety of purposes, — hammers, small
celts, knives, scrapers, etc* — the mineral Pectolite, in a
massive form in which it much resembles jade. This is a
silicate of lime and soda, closely related to jadeite (which
contains no lime, however), and, like it, belonging to the
pyroxene group. It is a mineral of the igneous rocks, and
usually occurs in tufts and radiated masses of beautiful
white, needle-like crystals ; but is sometimes compact and
massive. The specific gravity is from 2.6 to 2*87 (as in the
Point Barrow specimens), close to that of nephrite; but
the hardness is much less, being only 5, so that it is easily
distinguished by being scratched with a knife or with a
nephrite point. Before the blow-pipe, also, it fuses
readily to a porcelain-like globule, and the flame is colored
intensely yellow, indicating the presence of sodium.
Though usually a very white mineral, that from Alaska
has also many shades of green and yellow-green, and even
when white always presents a distinct grayish-green tint.
It is remarkably tough, and well suited for hammers.

Another mineral of the pyroxene group that is occasion-
ally taken for jade, is Wollastoiiite— a simple silicate of
lime with a very small percentage of magnesia and iron
oxides, differing from pectolite just described in the
absence of soda, and from jadeite in the absence of both
alumina and soda. It is usually crystallized or has a
marked crystalline structure, passing into cleavable
massive and fibrous. In the last-named condition it
might, like pectolite, easily be taken for jadeite ; though
it is not known to have been used for implements, as
pectolite lias. It has very nearly the toughness of ne-
phrite, and about the same density — 2.8 to 2,9; but its

JADE AS A MINERAL.

269

hardness is much lower — 4.5 to 5 , so that it may very
easily be distinguished by this test alone.

There are two or three green to white minerals, belonging
to the group known as feldspar, that sometimes resemble
forms of jade. Among these may be noted anmzon-stone,
already mentioned, euphotide, and saecharite. The feld-
spars are compounds of silica with alumina and one or more
of the alkaline oxides- — potash, soda, and lime. Amazon-
stone is a bright verdigris-green, or bluish-green variety of
the species called inicrocline, a triclinic feldspar, containing
16 or 17 per cent, of potash. It is not a common mineral,
though found occasionally in various countries. The
name of amazon-stone is recent, and was given to it when
brought from the region of the Amazon, in Brazil, in the
form of numerous archaeological ornaments.

Amazon-stone, however, is easily distinguished from any
of the jades by its much lower density, which varies from
2.54 to 2.57. Hence it is easily determined either by
weighing or by the Sonstadt solution. The hardness is
6.5, that of nephrite; but it differs in its lustre, which is
vitreous rather than unctuous, and in possessing a. very
marked and perfect cleavage, which can generally be
detected by the eye without breaking the specimen, and
an aspect, when closely examined, of fine parallel lines
traversing the mineral.

Among the forms of Jade ascien y which in former times
served the natives of Xew Caledonia for the manufacture
of their beautiful green adzes and beads, and was prized as
an article of trade or of plunder among the inhabitants of
neighboring islands, is apparently a green lamellar
feldspar of the variety termed euphotide, somewhat
altered, however, from its original condition. It is
described as a beautiful green, translucent rock, of greasy
lustre and splintery fracture, retaining in part the lami-
nated aspect of a true euphotide which occurs not far away.

One more feldspar may be noted here, as having been
occasionally taken for nephrite when in rolled pebbles or
fragments. This is Labrador ite , another triclinic soda-

270

JADE AS A MINERAL.

lime feldspar, of dark gray or greenish color, with frequ-
ently a very beautiful play of iridescent lines, especially
blue and green. Tills feature has given it the name of
opalescent feldspar, and renders it a material of great
beauty in the ornamental arts* The lustre is, pearly, pass-
ing into vitreous or sub-resinous* It is rather a rare
mineral, and may be distinguished from the jades by
* several features, e* g ., its lower hardness (5 to 6); its
lower specific gravity (2,70 to 2*72) ; and its evident
cleavage structure, as well us, generally, by its play of
colors.

Two very important silicate groups, closely related in
chemical and physical characters, and embracing numerous
varieties under each, are pyroxene and hornblende (or
amphibole), Jadeite is related to the former, though
distinct, and nephrite has been classed with the latter*
There are some varieties of pyroxene, however, that closely
approach the jades in aspect, and have been described as
such, and some that seem almost: intermediate varieties.
Such are the ''jades 15 of St. Marcel, Yal d' Aosta, and
Fay, and certain forms of diopside.

A grass-green pyroxene, granular to foliated, called
Qmphacite, intermingled with garnet, forms a peculiar
and beautiful rock known as eclogite, often interlamhiated
with a bright green amphibole called snuiragdite* This
omp! incite has a s pec i lie gravity of 3*2 to 3.3. about that
of jadeite, a hardness rather lower, 5*o to 6, and the
cleavage of pyroxene. To it have been referred two noted
instances of supposed jades* — those of Yal d' Aosta and Sr.
Marcel*

A pebble found by Dr. Pitorre in the Yal (T Aosta, on
the road to Little St, Bernard, had a hardness, density,
and fusibility similar to jadeite, a beautiful grass-green
color, and a fibro-crystalline structure. It much resembled
some Chinese specimens, and was believed at first to be
identical with them.

A similar stone was found at St* Marcel, in Piedmont,

JADE AS A MINERAL*

271

by Herr Bertrand de Lon, forming a small vein in white
quartzite* Fischer regarded both of these as omphaeite,
to which they approach somewhat on analysis* Meyer
{Jade it and Nephrit Objecte , II, 13) considers them to
be intermediate substances between jadeite and nephrite.

The Fay specimen was a green crystalline mineral from
the village of Fay, in the department of Loire Inferieure,
France, not far from Nantes. It contained red garnets,
and formed a vein in gneiss; the hardness, density, and
fusibility were nearly the same as in jadeite* From its
mode of occurrence, Fischer referred this substance also to
omphaeite, but an analysis by Daumur showed it to be
quite different, and nearer to some of the true jadeites,
especially of rhe chloromelamte type.

D topside is a true pyroxene, in color varying from
white through yellowish and grayish to pale green, and
sometimes dark green. It is usually found in prismatic
crystals, which, when transparent and of line color, have
sometimes been out as green gems; but it also occurs in
granular, columnar, and lamellar masses, and has then in
some instances been taken for jade. The density is 3.2
to 3.38, and the hardness 0 to 6.5* The principal charac-
ter by which it may be distinguished from jadeite is its
facile cleavage, and also its usually greater translucency.
On analysis it yields silica 55.6 per cent., alumina 25.0,
and magnesia 18.5; while jadeite has less alumina, almost
no magnesia, and considerable soda.

Nephrite, as above stated, is a variety classed with the
aniphibole or hornblende group ; another variety is known
as AeUnolite % very closely akin to nephrite, and in some of
its forms it has been taken for it* Aetinolite is usually in
slender crystals, radiating or matted together, and passing
into fibrous and asbestos-like forms ; (lie color is light to
dark green. Some specimens of a massive, pale green
mineral, from the Rylshytte mine, near Garpenberg,
Dalecarlia, Sweden, were sent for analysis to Meyer, Fren-
zel, and Cohen, under the supposition that they might be
nephrite. Chemical and microscopical examination showed

272

JADE AS A MINERAL,

them to be dense actlnalite, rather too soft and coarsely
granular for nephrite, and without its typical fibrous
tufted structure.

At the head of all green minerals, for beauty and value,
stands the Emerald , a variety of beryl. It has been prized
as a gem from the remotest antiquity, and maintains its
rank unrivalled and unimpaired. So far as any resem-
blance to the jades is concerned, it is only the rougher and
more opaque forms of emerald that could be so confused,
but; with those it is quite possible, and hence its mention
here.

Beryl is a silicate of alumina and the rare earth glucina,
containing silica G7 per cent,, alumina 19, and glucina 14.
It varies from very pale green to light blue and to golden-
yellow, and all intervening tints, and if a small amount of
oxide of chromium is present, the green becomes deep and
brilliant, producing the emerald. The hardness is 7 to 8,
and the specific gravity 2.7 ; the lustre is vitreous, and
sometimes resinous. The mineral crystallizes in six-sided
prisms, only rarely becoming columnar or massive. It is
generally translucent, varying from transparent to opaque ;
and brittle with conclioidal or irregular fracture.

In massive pieces, when opaque or sub-translucent, either
beryl or emerald may resemble nephrite ; and there has
very likely been confusion between them in the case of
some archaeological objects. But beryl, or emerald, can
very easily be distinguished from any jade, (1) by its
greater hardness, readily scratching both nephrite and
jadeite ; (2) by its less density, 2.6 to 2,8 ; and (3) by the
absence of cleavage and also of anything approaching the
fibrous texture of nephrite.

One of the minerals that most frequently resemble cer-
tain of the jades is the silicate of magnesia, known as Ser-
pentine, and especially a white or pale greenish variety
called bowenite. Serpentine is abundant in many coun-
tries, and has an endless variety of shades of green, from
pale to yellow-green and waxy brown, olive, bluish-green,

JADE AS A MINERAL.

273

to almost jet-black, often intermingled in spots and clouds
of different tints. It was rarely used for celts, as it is not
very hard, and somewhat fragile. But many art objects
have been made of serpentine, which to the unpractised eye
easily pass for nephrite. Its inferior hardness, however,
never more than 6, and usually between 4 and 5 ; its low
specific gravity, never above 2.05 ; its greasy rather than
unctuous lustre and feel ; and the readiness with which it
loses its lustre before the blowpipe, and generally turns
whitish-gray, readily distinguish this mineral in its many
varieties from both nephrite and jadeite.

Most of the serpentines are opaque, but the variety
known as precious or noble serpentine is translucent, and
makes a beautiful ornamental stone, but very soft,— 2.5 to
3, — scarcely as hard as ordinary marble* Antigorite is a
lamellar variety from the Antigorlo Valley, in Piedmont,
sometimes of a rich leek- or emerald-green, by transmitted
light, but also not harder than 2.5. Williamsite is a beauti-
ful variety from the chrome-mine at Texas, Lancaster
County, Pennsylvania. It is harder— 4.5 — and of exceed-
ingly rich colors, emerald-green and blue-green, sometimes
mingled with white, strongly resembling some of the hand-
somest of Chinese jades. It probably owes its peculiar
beauty of color to oxide of nickel, and sometimes contains
small disseminated crystals of chromic iron.

The variety Bowenite, however, is the form of serpentine
that has really been confounded with nephrite. It is a
compact variety, white and grayish-white to pale green. It
was found at Smith field, Rhode Island, by Geo. T. Bowen,
and described by him as nephrite, in 1822 (Am. Jour. Sci .,
V, p. 346). Dana, however (8yst. Min . , p. 265, 1850)
recognized its character, and gave it the name of bowenite.
It has the unusual hardness, for a serpentine, of 5.5 to 6,
a density of 2.6 to 2.8, and a greater toughness than prob-
ably any variety of this mineral elsewhere known. It is
massive, very fine granular in texture, and closely resem-
bles jadeite.

274

JADE AS A MINERAL*

The * £ TangiwaV' variety of New Zealand greenstone*
usually classed as jade, is apparently the same as bowen-
ite — a hard, compact serpentine. It has the same hard-
ness, and very nearly the same density, but is bright green
and translucent. This mineral has been frequently con-
founded with jade.

A jade-like stone called 8cmg-i-yashm by the Persians
is only another form of this same bowenite. It varies
from dark grayish-green to pale sea-green, mottled with
white, and is worked into small articles of ornament at
Bhera in the Pimjaub. It has, however* !he inferior hard-
ness (5) and density (2.59) winch belong to the serpentines,
and readily distinguish it from any of the true jades.

Among the numerous varieties of non-crystalline or
cryptocrystalline quartz, which vary from translucent to
opaque, and present many tints and shades of color, there
are several green varieties that have been, and may be,
readily confounded with jade. Four of these may be
briefly referred to here, and their distinctive characters
indicated. These are prase, diry so prase, plasma, and
green jasper.

Prase is a dull-green, semi-crystalline quartz, sometimes
approaching leek-green. It has never been much valued
for an ornamental stone, as its colors are not rich or dear,
but its aspect is not at nil unlike certain of the jades.

Plasma is a closely related variety, often spoken of as
leek-green, sometimes even emerald-green, translucent or
sub-translucent. From its frequent bright green tint,
almost the peculiar yellowish or golden-green of some of
the finest nephrites, especially as seen by transmitted light,
plasma is easily mistaken for them, but is readily distin-
guished.

(Jhry sop rase is. another variety of chalcedony (or came-
lian), a translucent cryptociystalline quartz,— colored a
rich, delicate apple-green by a small quantity of oxide of
nickel, from one per cent, to four-tenths of one per cent, of

JADE AS A MINERAL .

275

which is p resent. It is a beautiful stone, but of rare occur-
rence.

Green Jasper is another mineral of the same general
group, but the opaque and amorphous variety of quartz,
lacking the transluceney of the previous kinds. The color-
ing matter is generally oxide of iron, the protoxide giving
the green tints, and the sesquioxide the yellows and reds
that appear in many jaspers. Sometimes the two are
mingled in bands or spots, as iti the dark-green variety
flecked with bright red specks or drops, known as blood-
stone or heliotrope — though of this, see further on. Green
jasper has often been confounded with jade ; so that many
of the earlier references to jasper may have been really to
jade, and vice versa.

Besides these varieties, there are several that resemble
them, but owe their green tints not to the presence of
coloring oxides, but to the mechanical inclusion of other
minerals. Much green jasper, particularly the bloodstone
variety above mentioned (properly called Heliotrope)^ owes
its color to the presence of a large amount of dark, green
delessite (a chlorite- 1 ike mineral — a hydrous silicate of
alumina, magnesia, and iron) included in the chalcedonic
base. In the same way, some prase is a chalcedony colored
by minute inclusions of prochlorite (a silicate similar to
delessite). Such is probably the supposed jade from Cor-
sica, which was mentioned as a locality for it by Lenz, in
1800, and von Leonhard, in 1 808. On investigation of a
specimen in the University Collection at Strasbourg,
labelled Xephrit aus Corsica, VJ Fischer found a. p rased ike
mineral, which, however, gave an uncertain result upon
analysis, nob corresponding to nephrite, and very far from
prase. It showed considerable alumina, magnesia, and
iron oxide as present, and is probably a quartz with inclu-
sions of some chloritic mineral. Occasionally, quartz is so
filled with prochlorite as to resemble some of the dark
varieties of chloromelanite ; and if either quartz or chal-
cedony contains such minerals in large proportion, as the
spec! lie gravity of prochlorifce varies from 2,8 to 2.96, the

276

JADE AS A MINERAL.

specific gravity of the mixture might easily be raised to
very nearly that of nephrite.

Other varieties of this kind are the so-called Chinese
Moss-agate, a very beautiful stone, really, in most cases,
from India, near Abraedabad. Here a translucent white
or bluish chalcedony, is filled with green, moss-like, or sea-
weed-like markings, which were formerly supposed to be
of vegetable origin, but are merely fine crystallizations’ of
metallic oxides, chiefly iron, forming patterns like those of
frost-work on a window-pane in winter. At times, these
become so dense as to fill up the stone, which then pre-
sents a homogeneous, dark, green color, like a rich jade.

Many specimens of so-called “imperial jade” (the fei-
ts'ui of the Chinese) have proved on examination to be the
beautiful green Aventurine.

All these more or less jade-like varieties of quartz may
be distinguished by characters easily determined. As com-
pared with either nephrite or jadeite, they have a some-
what greater hardness (7), and a less density (2.6-2.65),
and so maybe separated from them either by direct weigh-
ing or by the Sonstadt solution. The quartz minerals all,
have a greater resistance to the touch, and there is nothing
like the horn-like structure and fracture of nephrite or the
crystalline texture of jadeite. The structure of the jaspers
is wholly amorphous, and that of the other varieties
described is cryptocrystalline. In microscopic examination
it is found to possess the optical properties of quartz,
which belongs to the hexagonal system.

An exception may be noted in regard to the density, in
the cases above referred to, where a large amount of
included foreign matter of greater density may raise the
specific gravity above that of quartz to nearly that of
nephrite ; but the other characters remain as means of dis-
crimination for all forms of quartz.

The remaining minerals, except the really difficult ones
to be specially noted beyond, are very much softer than

JADE AS A MINERAL.

277

any real jades, and can be at once separated. Agalmato-
lite in all its forms, natural or carved and stained for
imitation, oncosin, chonicrite, etc., fall under this general
statement ; their hardness rarely exceeding 3, — often less, —
so as to yield to the first touch of a knife. The same may
be said of the serpentines, though some of them occasion-
ally have a higher hardness (Williamsite, 4.5), and all are
also less dense, averaging from 2.;“ to 2.6 in specific
gravity. Bowenite alone among serpentines is botli hard
and heavy enough to have been seriously confounded with
nephrite.

The really difficult minerals will now be briefly dealt
with ; of these there are only a few, as follows :

A delicate, pale-green, translucent mineral named
PreTinite, after an early discoverer, Col. Prelm, has in
some instances been mistaken for jade. It is a silicate of
alumina and lime, with a hardness of 6 to 6.5, and a
density of 2.80 to 2.95, closely approaching nephrite in
both these features. It is light green, or oily green of
various shades, but differs from nephrite in its vitreous
lustre, and very markedly in its lack of toughness ; being
so brittle as to break quite readily. It is one of the
minerals found in the cavities of trap and similar rocks,
and never occurs in large masses, though small pieces of
it are sometimes cut and polished for ornamental work.
But it is not known to have been used by prehistoric man
at all, and is not likely to be met with by collectors, save
in the form of pebbles or fragments ; though possibly
some small Chinese objects may prove to be prehnite.

Epidote is another complicated silicate, somewhat
similar in composition to the last, but with more iron and
alumina, and little or no magnesia. It has various shades
of yellowish- and olive-green, to almost black, and is fre-
quent in prismatic crystals, monoclinic, but very much
modified, in metamorphie and sometimes in igneous rocks;
also granular and forming at times rock-masses. Its hard-
ness, 6 to 7, and density, 3.25 to 3.5, are close to jadeite,

278

JADE AS A MINERAL.

but it lias a strong cleavage and a vitreous lustre. Epi-
dote is sometimes one of the minute components of Sans*
smite, elsewhere described ; but it is not a mineral likely
to be confounded with jade, save in the following relation :
It often occurs intermingled with quartz or with orthoclase
feldspar, or with both, at the juncture of a vein in a
course granular or pegmatite rock. The fine intermixture
of the green epidote with the white or liesh-color of I lie
quartz and feldspar produces a mottled yellowish-green
that resembles some varieties of nephrite. As the hard-
ness and density are near those of jadeite, it might be
taken for that mineral when the epidote was predominant,
and for nephrite if the density of the mixture was brought
below 3 by a large proportion of the other minerals.
Before the blow-pipe, however, epidote fuses at 3.5 to a
dark or black mass that is frequently magnetic — owing to
the large content of iron in the mineral. The separate
crystals are quite brittle, but as a rock-mass, or in a rock-
mixture, it is tough.

Vesuvianite^ or idocrase, is a mineral that in massive
form lias been taken for jade in a well-known instance.
It is a complex silicate, of alumina, lime, magnesia, and
iron, and is named from its frequent occurrence in the
lavas of Vesuvius ; but it also occurs in many met am Or-
phic rocks, serpentines, limestone, etc,— usually in square
prismatic crystals, but sometimes massive. Its color is
brownish-green, olive, yellow-green to brown, or even
yellow ; hardness, 6.5 ; specific gravity, 3.35 to 3.45 ; lustre
vitreous, inclining to resinous : fracture sub-conchoidal to
uneven ; texture brittle. This last feature, and its
marked translucency and vitreous lustre are the best
external distinctions of idocrase from jadeite, for which
it was taken by Fellenberg ( Jahrb , fur Miner ^ I, 103,
1889) ; but it was identified by Da mo nr and others.

In 1887 Berwerrh described a jadeite from Borgo Novo,
G-ranbundten (Ann, Hof . Nat . Mus., Wien, 1887, II, lift.
3), and Virchow referred to it from this locality, in the
ZeUschrlft fur Ethnblogle (561, 1SS7). It seems, how-
ever, that this was a mistake, owing to specimens having

been sent for examination from a Professor Stampe, of
Borgo Novo, and that 1 lie real locality, as announced by
von Fellenberg, was in rolled masses in the bed of the
Orlegna, near the village of Casaccia, in the Upper Enga-
dine. He and Professor Stampe discovered it in place on
the south side of the Piz Longhiin in the Bergellthal, near
the foot of a precipitous mountain wall. They found it
as a white vein, forming lens-shaped masses in a hard
yellowish -gray rock. Subsequent examination of this
Piz Lough ia material by Meyer and Frenzel {Neues Jahrb.
fur Miner* i 1880) proved that it was not jadeite, but a
compact form of vesuvianite,

Agcdmatollte , pagodite, or Chinese figure-stone, is one
of the minerals most frequently sold to the inexperienced
or unwary traveller in China under the name of jade. It
is at once distinguishable, however, by its softness. Its
structure is very compact, line, and homogeneous, taking
the most delicate tool-marks, and making it. an ideal
material for carving. Its natural color is whitish, grayish,
or yellowish ; but it readily absorbs coloring-matters, and
is frequently stained green or greenish to imitate nephrite,
sometimes clouded or spotted with brown, Agalmatolite
is an altered mineral, derived from two or three species of
aluminous and magnesian silicates ; much of it is essen-
tially pinite, though containing a little more silica; some
of it is pyrophyllite, and some is practically steatite (com-
pact talc). In all its forms, however, the hardness is only
from 2 to 3 ; so that a mere touch with the knife, or even
rubbing with the hand, is enough to identify it and
remove all question of jade. The feel is soft and unctu-
ous, aitd the specific gravity varies between 2.7 and 2d),

A beautiful variety of what seems to be the same stone
is found near Washington, Georgia : this is often trans-
lucent, and of a very attractive bluish-green to emerald-
green color. It was carved by the Indians into banner-
stones and similar ornaments ; these are sometimes found
in ancient graves in Georgia and the Carolinas, and have
repeatedly been taken for nephrite.

Turquoise , the Turkey-stone of the sixteenth and eigh-

280

JADE AS A MINERAL.

teenth centuries, was so called from having reached
Europe from the East through Turkey. It has been
chiefly obtained from mines in Persia, at Nisliapur, in
Khorassau, though found at a few other points, and it has
been used as a gem from very early times.

The proper color of turquoise is sky-blue, inclining
slightly to green. But much of it is of greenish-blue and
green tints, and the inferior qualities are pale and muddy
yellowish-greens. The blue tint so much prized is often
readily altered to green, both naturally by exposure to
the weather, or even to the air, and artificially by heat;
or when worn, by contact with fatty acids, perspiration,
soaps, or perfumes ; so that turquoises must be kept for
some time before mounting for jewelry, to see if this color
is permanent, and must be worn with care, especially as
to contact with soaps and perfumes, the oils from which
are very apt to alter (he color.

The ancient Mexicans had a green stone which they
prized immensely, and carved into a variety of ornaments
and talismans. This they called chalehlhuitL and it lias
figured largely in American archaeology. Professor W. P.
Blake, on the discovery of the ancient turquoise mines in
New Mexico, argued strongly that this was the celebrated
and mysterious dial chi huitl (Amer. Jour . ScL 7 XXV, 227,
1858; and XXV, 197, 1S83). Others regard it as rough
emerald, and others perhaps jade. The name was no
doubt a general term covering several kinds of handsome
green minerals, rather than any one in particular.

The green varieties of turquoise much resemble jade,
but may be distinguished quite readily in several ways :
(1) by the lack of toughness; (2) by inferior hardness,
being only 6; (8) by the lower specific gravity, 2.6 to 2.8,
easily determined either by weighing or by the Son-
stadt solution ; {4i by the texture, which is compact and
smooth, with no trace of anything either fibrous or crys-
talline — a scraped surface having the perfect smoothness
of soap or ivory when cut with a knife ; (5) by the com-
plete absence of cleavage, and almost uniform opacity.
Turquoise is a hydrous phosphate of alumina, the color

JADE AS A MINERAL,

281

being due to a small amount of copper compound, prob-
ably a phosphate.

The celebrated and beautiful stone called Malachite is
a hydrous carbonate of copper, rarely crystallized, but
often fibrous and massive, with a mammillary or “ botry-
oidar' surface. The color is brilliant emerald-green,
lighter and darker, frequently finely banded and clouded in
different shades, and usually quite opaque. It is found
all over the world, but rarely in large masses. All races
and periods have known and used it ; and some malachite
articles have been mistaken for jade. There need never
be any question, however, as its hardness is much less
(3.6 to 4), easily scratched with a penknife, and its
density much greater (3.9 to 4} than either nephrite or
jadeite. A drop of nitric or hydrochloric acid at once
causes effervescence, liberating the carbonic-acid gas. Its
brilliant color, moreover, its opacity, and the very general
appearance of tine agate-like bands and lines, concentric
or wavy, parallel all through it, in lighter and darker
green, are unlike any aspects of jade.

One more mineral may be mentioned as being possibly
confounded with jade, but very easily recognized by tests
similar to the last. Tills is Jlossottte, a rare variety of
aragonite, a carbonate of lime, colored a delicate light
greenish-blue by a trace of copper. The color is very
characteristic of jadeite ; but the hardness is only 3.6 to
4, as in malachite, and the acid test acts in precisely the
same way, causing effervescence, and showing it to be
a carbonate, A lens reveals at once the fibre-columnar
structure of aragonite,

Chonicrtte , a massive, crystalline-granular to compact
mineral, forming seams in serpentine rock on the Island
of Elba. It has a specific gravity of 2.91 ; a hardness of
to 3, a white color, and a faintly glimmering or silky
lustre. To this has been referred, as closely allied, a sup-
posed nephrite found near Easton, Penn., in 1824. Fischer,
in I860, showed it to be near chonicrite, and gave it the
name of pseudo-nephrite {Nephril and Jadeite p. 244).

Possibly in no country more than in China have so

2S2

JADE AS A MINERAL.

many substances been mistaken for jade, due probably to
the fact that exact ininertilogical knowledge does not exist
there. In no country in tlie world is jade more sought
for and used; and at the same time, nowhere have more
clever deceptions been practised in the polishing of the
surface than in China.

One who is not well versed in the studv of jade may be
surprised at the absence from the Bishop Collection of
what lias been so much spoken of from time to time by col-
lectors as Pink Jade. In reality, the only specimens of
jade that have any approach to pink are the Burmese
pieces, in which the color is not really pink, but a pinkish-
lavender. That this form of jade is not represented may
be readily explained by the fact that true pink jade is
probably unknown ; although many specimens have been
sold from time to time at fabulous prices by dealers on
both sides of the Atlantic. A careful examination of
these so-called pink jades was made, with the following
results :

1st. The specific gravity of all the pieces examined
varied from 2.6 to 2. 03. 2d. The hardness of all the pieces

was 7, 3d. In several small transparent spots in the

object it was possible to place the translucent parts under
the stauroscope, and to prove that the material crystallized
in the hexagonal system. It required but a single speci-
men to prove that the material itself was pure silica, and
when the hand was rubbed over the objects the surface
offered that resistance peculiar to quartz, and not the soft,
unctuous feel of the nephrite, or the peculiar, almost
slippery feel of the jadeite. The pink color of all these
objects was very striking, not a natural color, in fact, but
a strong aniline in character. With a pocket lens it
could be readily seen that the entire objects were fissured
and flawed partly through, naturally and closely, but that
probably they had also been crackled, and that in these
minute cracks alone could the coloring matter be found,
A bit of cotton, saturated with alcohol and carefully
rubbed over a part of the object, in all instances brought

forth a bit of aniline stain, leaving no question as to the
fact that the objects had been made out of a crackled,
almost milky quartz, by being heated and plunged into
cold water or a cold aniline solution ; or that (he material
had been crackled and the objects then boiled for some
time in an aniline solution. The boiling would expel all
the air from the cracks and close them, and upon cooling
in the solution the cracks would again open and absorb
the coloring material. They were then washed, and to
the practised eye appeared more brilliant, more beautiful,
and more charming than any piece of natural jade ever
produced. This imitation is somewhat like the blue-green
and red gems that have been made for the past century
and generally sold under the name of Mont Blanc rubies,
sapphires', and emeralds, and by the French called in the
latter part of the 18th century “rubasse.” In the latter
case, however, pure rock-crystal was used, and it was only
Ha wed enough to absorb the color, giving the ■appearance
when stained of a transparent blue-green or red gem,

One of the simplest, most common, and most ingenious
of all artificial jades is that made of a heavy “paste”
glass — a lead glass containing a quantity of oxide of lead
in place of the soda in ordinary glass. This material is
colored with wonderful skill and fidelity to nature, to
imitate all varieties of jade. A frequent kind is made
pure white and nearly opaque, with rich splashes of green,
to simulate th efei-ts'-ui, the so-called “imperial jade” of
China. This form maybe found in bracelets, earrings, and
other trinkets, wherever a Chinese shop exists. Again,
it is made altogether green — the particular bluish-green of
the Burmese jadeite — and sold in the same forms as the
last. Another kind is entirely white, or faintly tinged
with lavender to imitate the white and lavender jades.
Some glass has been made almost of a black-green. One
well-known imitation is given the rather pleasing French
name of pate de riz, as though a rice-paste ingeniously
united and hardened ; whereas it is merely a white glass
with a faint tint of bluish-green or bluish-gray.

But the coloring is by no means all. The expert

284

JADE AS A MINERAL,

Chinese glass-makers well understand the art of deaden-
ing the lustre of the surface — first producing a high polish,
and then with a line, hard powder reducing it slightly so
as to impart to the glass almost precisely the lustre of
jade. These imitations, moreover, are not confined to
small objects, but many very fine and large pieces have
been made, which represent, of course, only a trifle of the
experience, and a fraction of the time of the carver, as
compared with such objects in real jade,

Geo roe Frederick Kunz.

Its places of production, varieties, literature,
and manufacture.

By Stephen W, Bush ell, B. Sc*, M* D.,
Physician to H. B. M, Legation, Peking, China,

MC"

An introduction to Yu Shuo , by Pang Jung tso.

CONTENTS,

Reverence of the Chinese for Jade. The character Yu
Jade Rivers* Mountains, towns, and quarries of K ho tan
Jade of Chinese Turkistan according to Ting Ho. Jad<
of tlie Mirfcai Mountains and from Yurungkash river
Present supply to Peking, Ch’ien-lnng Jade. Burmese
Ancient and Prehistoric. Insignia of rank. Symbols ii
worship. Talismans and Amulets.

Detailed reference to Baku ton (Illustrations of Ancieii
Bronze, thirty books) ; K'ao Jm &on (Illustrated Re
searches of Antiquities, ten books); and Kn yu t 'on {Ilhis
trations of Ancient Jade, two books), as one work edite*
by Iluang Shong in 1753 a, d. ; and to Kn yu to' u p%
(Illustrated Description of Ancient Jade, one hundret
books), edition of 1779 a* d.

With Maps of the Jade producing district of Chines*
Turkistan, Figures of inscriptions, and thirteen col ore c
Illustrations of the Manufacture of Jade, painted ii
Peking by the artist Li Cheng- yuan.

285

ON JADE IN CHINA.

I have been asked to write a few words on Chinese Jacie,
by way of introduction to the learned Discourse on Jails,
by my friend T ang Jung-fcso,* which is remarkable not
only for its research into the vast store of native literature,

Chinese names the surname comes first, the next two syllables con-
nected by a hyphen being the personal name. Chinese is a strictly mono-
syllabic language, ami iu the transcription of foreign names, in the same way as
in that oE the native blanch m each syllable must be rendered by one or more
Chinese characters, e. g. T Bi-sIiP-pa for Bishop. I have followed Sir Thomas
Wade’s system of orthography, which is now so generally adopted, as by my
friend Mr. Hippisley, in the Catalogue of his Collection of Chinese Porcelain
published by the Smithsonian Institution, Washington, 1890, Mr. Giles in his
large Chinese dictionary uses the same system of transliteration.

With regard to pronu&sfiitioD, the consonants are generally pronounced as in
English, with the exception of j, which is nearly the French j in jatme, the
English & in fusion or * in bmzier. The initials 0, k, p, t, ts t tz occur also
aspirated, and the aspirate which intervenes between them and the vowel fol-
lowing is indicated by an apostrophe in preference to an ft. lest the English reader
should pronounce ph as in triumph, th as in month, and so oil To pronounce
cft% drop the italicised letters in mi/chdiam, for Pa drop the italics in hit-ha rd.
The initial hs, with a slight aspirate preceding and modifying the sibilant, is a
peculiar sound which can only be acquired by practice.

The vowels and diphthongal sounds are pronounced as in Italian, in accord-
with the following table :

Vowel Symbols Webster’s System
it
£

i = e

T or u

English Value
a as in father
c as in yet
e as in fern
i as in marine
i as in pin
o as in ford
w as in prune
u as in German Nimchen
between i in hit and u in shut.

For the last vowel sound, u, which is found only with the initials s$, tz, tz ,
we have no equivalent in English. In the diphthongal sounds each of the
vowels is separately pronounced in the Italian fashion ; thus, ai, nearly oui aye,
is better represented by the Italian ai in hat, a nidi ; ia by the Italian m in
piazza; ie is pronounced as iu the Italian siesta, ni elite, etc. Each Chinese
monosyllable has its own special tone or musical intonation, but for this the
inquirer must be referred to special works on the subject.

286

JADE AS A MINERAL.

2S7

but also for the knowlege it shows of ancient and modern
work in Jade, It has been written to illustrate the impor-
tant and recherche collection of Mr. Heber R. Bishop, who
requested “a condensed article on jade by a native Chi-
nese scholar, treating upon its uses in China from the
earliest period down to the present day ; stating what
appreciation it obtained when first brought into use, and
for what purposes it was used ; a general statement of the
estimation in which it was held, and of the general senti-
ment associated with it on the part of the Chinese, espe-
cially regarding it in its crude condition, as well as when
worked into forms for implements or artistic purposes.
If they have any particular religious associations with it,
that should also be stated ; and then also to what extent
it was used and appreciated by the Imperial Government ;
and to what extent it is now mined, and for what purposes.”
The author lias, in accordance with these instructions,
which were communicated to him by me, divided his
article into nine sections, entitled :

I. Sources of Jade.

II. Crude Jade.

Ill, Value of Jade
1 V. Objects made of Jade.

V. Jade used by the Son of Heaven,

VI. Jade used by the State.

VII. Colors of Jade.

A’ III. Ancient Jade.

IX. Fei-ts’uL

It concludes with an Appendix, containing the titles of
71 books quoted in the article, which range through
at least three thousand years, and belong to every class of
literature, from the official annals to the relations of
Taoist legend. I have given the names of most of the
writers of these books, and their approximate dates.
The Discourse itself I have translated as literally as pos-
sible, so as to try to convey the spirit of the original.
There is hardly space for comment or for minute criticism
of details, even were it advisable.

288

JADE AS A MINERAL.

The Chinese seem to have had the highest appreciation
of jade from prehistoric times, before the migration of the
black-haired race to China, and while they were still resi-
dents of Central Asia, the native country of the best jade.
This is shown by the frequent reference to it in the classi-
cal books and in the early annals. Kuan Tzu, the famous
Minister of Duke Huan* of Ch’i, who lived in the seventh

*L)uke Hu an (b. c. 693-G42) was the fifteenth hereditary prince of Ch'f, a
slate situated in the north of what is now the province of Shantung, a fief
bestowed by 1 Vu Wang, the founder of the Chou dynasty, upon Shang-fu, one
of his chief advisers both in peace and in war. For thirty -nine years Duke
Huan was the acknowledged head of the confederacy of states which ruled the
internal affairs of China under the nominal sovereignty of the house of Chou,
owing his success in great measure to the advice and statesmanship of his
famous counsellor, Kuan Chung, who died in B, a 045, and who is enrolled in
the list of sages under the title Kuan Tzu, and is the author of the philo-
sophical book on government and legislation which bears his name. The
feudal princes at this period w r ere ran ked as knng 1 hou , po, tzu , and nan,
fairly rendered, duke, marquis, earl, viscount, and baron. These hereditary
titles are still used in China, although the feudal system, m in Europe, is long
extinct,

Tiie Chou was the third of the three ancient dynasties with which authen-
tic Chinese history begins, after a prolonged fabulous and legendary period
ending with the reigns of Ilw and Shun, which head the first chapters of the
Shu Chi tig, the classical Book of Annals, The successor of the emperor Shun,
Tit the Great, was the founder of the IMa dynasty, under which the rule was
banded down in hereditary succession till his house was overthrown by Tung
the Successful, the founder of the Second dynasty, the Bhang or TV», The
reigning Mnnchu dynasty is the twenty-fifth in the line according to the fol-
lowing table :

ABSTRACT OF THE CHINESE DYNASTIES,

Dynasty

1. Hsia

2, Bhang

3. Chou

A CU'in

Remarks

Began

Puraiinn

17 sovereigns

b. c. 2205

ye&rs

439

23 sovereigns. The IGlh, P T an
Iveug, changed the dynastic
title to Tin, r.€. 1401

1760

044

34 sovereigns. The 13th, P ing
Wang, moved the capital to
Lo, w. C, 770, founding the
Eastern Chou. Confucius

flourished r>. <\ 551-470

1122

807

Founded by Ch’in Shihdittang,
builder of the Great Wall,
whose son reigned only 3
vears

255

century b. c., writes in liis book on political economy :
“Jude comes from Ou-ti, gold comes from Ju Han, pearls
are produced in Ch'e-yeh. The former kings, because
these things came from afar, and were obtained with diffi-
culty. made, use of them according to the respective value
of each, pearls and jade being estimated highest, gold
placed in t lie middle class, copper knives and spade-sliaped
coins belonging to the lowest class.”

The character yu, meaning jade, is a very ancient one.
It consisted originally of three horizontal lines, connected
by a vertical line, representing three stones strung
together, the dot on the right being a modern addition, to

5. Iliin

Styled Western Han from tlie
site of its capital at Ch’nng-
an. now Hsi-an-fit. 14 ein-

Later Hair

petors

Also styled Eastern Han from
its capital at Lo-yang, in
the province of Honan.

206

231

Minor Han

12 emperors

2 emperors. Divided the em-
pire with the Wei and Wu
Epoch of Three Kingdoms,

A, D. 25

106

San Kuo

221

Chin

Eastern Chin

4 emperors

11 emperors. The founder.

265

10 . Sung

11. Ch'i

12 . Liang

13. Cli'6n
14 r Sui
15. Thing

10 . Posterior Liang
17. Posterior Tang
1 W. Posterior Chin

19. Posterior Han

20. Posterior GIiou

21. Bung

23. Southern Sung

Nan Pei Ch'ao, the Tar-
tar dynasties of Wei
(Sfti-IVlim Ch*i (5M>-577),
and Chou {557-5811 rat-
ing the North.

Yuan Ti, removed the capital
to Chien-K'ang, now Nan-
king

q Epoch of Bivteon he-

« emperors lwcen Korrh imtl Sontll

5 emperors

4 emperors

3 emperors
8 emperors
20 emperors
2 emperors 1

4 emnerors 1 E J? 0ch of tlie Five

-k emperors, Tai—

2 emperors y during which la
_ ! niters reigned only

2 emperors j 53 years,

8 emperors J

9 emperors

9 emperors. Shared the empire
with the Chin Tartars (1115-
1234)

153

290

JADE AS A MINERAL.

distinguish it from the similar character, wang, “king.”
Two characters, placed side by side, and read chueh ,
meant two pieces, and the character chu signified,
specially, ten pieces of jade.

23. Yuan 9 emperors* Founded by Kub-

lai Khan, grandson of Gengis
Khan

1280

24. Ming 16 emperors

1368

276

25. Ch’ing T]io present Manclm Tartar line,

of which the 9tii emperor,
Kuang Hsh, is now reigning

1644

The MIG

Dynastic Title,

Dynasty
Title of Reign,

Year of

or MUto 11/ to

or Men Jiao

Accession

T'ai Tsu

Sung Wu

1368

Hui Ti

Chien Wen

1399

Ch'gng Tsu

Yung Lo

1403

Jon Tsung

Hung Hsi

1425

Hsiian Tsung

H sitan TO

1426

Ting Tsung *

Ch&ig Thing

1430

Tai Tsung Ching Ti

Ching T ai

1450

ring Tsung (restored)

T ien Slum

1457

iisieii Tung

Ch’eng Hua

1465

Hsiao Tsung

Hung Chili

1488

Wit Tsung

Cheng To

1506

Shili Tsung

Chia Ching

1522

Mu Tsung

Lung Ch ing

1567

Sh6n Tsung

Wan Li

1573

Kuang Tsung

T'ai Ch ang

1620

IIsi Tsung

T ien Ch 1 !

1621

Chuimg Lieh Ti

Ch ung Chin

1628

The Reigning (CITING) Dynasty.

Dynastic Title,

Title of Reign,

Year of

or Miao Huo

or JVien Mao

Accession

Sliih Tsu Chang Huang Ti

Shun Chili

1644

Shgng Tsu Jen Huang Ti

K ang Hsi

1662

Sliih Tsung Hsien Huang Ti

Yung Cliong

1723

Kao T siing Shun Huang Ti

Ch ien Lung

1736

Jon Tsung Jut Huang Ti

Chia Ch'ing

1796

Hsuan T$ung Ch'Ong Huang Ti

Tao Kuang

1821

Wen Tsung listen Huang Ti

Hsien Feng

1851

Mu Tsung Yi Huang Ti

T’ung Chili

1862

(The Reigning Sovereign)

Kuang Hsu

1875

\ t>f m Y Si l 7f CJJ T~)

XI ■

JADE AS A MINERAL.

201

Marco Polo was the first European to visit the district of
Khotan, celebrated for its jade. He passed through it on
his way to China, in the thirteenth century, and refers to
the quantities of jade, which he calls jasper, and chal-
cedony. found in the rivers of the country.* A more
detailed account of the “fishing*’ for jade is found in the
diary of Clrnng Kuang-yi, an envoy from the Emperor of
China to Khotan in the tenth century, as described by our
author. He alludes to three rivers, called White Jade
River, Green Jade River, and black Jade River, front the
different colors of the pebbles of jade found in their beds.
An Arab historian of Timur + (Tamarlane) tells of the two
rivers of Khotan, whose stones are of jasper (yeshm\
called Orangkasli and Karakagh, signifying in the Eastern
Turk] tongue White jade and Black jade, and adds that
these two rivers have their source in the mountain of
Karangotag. These names may all be found in modern
Chinese maps of Eastern Turk is tan, and they are placed
at about the same distances from Khotan as by Chang
Kuang-yi over nine centuries ago. The walled city of
Karakasli, 70 11% northwest of Khotan, and the village of
Yurungkash, 10 li east of Khotan, both take their names
from the rivers on which they stand- Johnson, describing
Ins visit to Khotan in 1865 T talks of jade as “obtained
from the Karangotak mountains at a. height of 873o feet/ 1

These mountains are really part of the great K'unlun
Range, and the same as the Khm Mountains referred to in
the Itinerary of Chang Kuang-yi as the source of the Jade
Rivers. This range, which starts in the east from the
borders of China Proper, on the south of the lake Kokonor,
forms the boundary line between Chinese Turkistnn and
Tibet. I have compiled the accompanying maps of the
jade-pr^clucing districts of Chinese Turkistan from Chinese
sources, to illustrate this paper. They are based upon the

* Thv Book of Scr JlrwiM / V'A newly translated and ediled with notes by
Colonel Henry Yule, C. B., 10 E. In two volumes, London, 1871. A second
edition, revised* with new matter and more illustrations, was published in
1875. Both editions are now out of print and scarce.

f IfUtoire <ie Timm\ traduite par Petis de In Croix. Tome 111, p h 2-19.

% A li may be roughly estimated at one- third of an English mile.

JADE AS A MINEBAL.

292

maps produced after the surveys made by British and
Russian officers, which were published at Debra Boon, at
the Office of t lie Great Trigonometrical Survey of India
in 1875, compared with more recent maps published in the
Journals and Proceedings of the Royal Geographical
Society of London, to illustrate the journeys of Lieutenant
Young-husband and other travellers* The K’unlun Range
may be seen traversing the map from Southeast to North-
west, it being known by various names in different parts of
its course. The part to the south of K ho tan is called Nan
Shan, or Southern Mountains, which is continuous on the
west with the Margulugb Mountains, and these pass into
the Mirtai Mountains, which last extend northward as far
as the town of Kliusharab (meaning “Twin Peak Stream ?, ) 5
where the Yarkand or Zarafshan (“ Gold -scattering’ ? )
River emerges through a precipitous defile. These Mirtai
Mountains are described in the paper of Thing Jung-tso as
situated 230 li southwest of the town of Yarkand under
the name of Mirtai Tapan, Tnpan standing here for Cuban,
which in Manclra signifies mountains. They are usually
called in older Chinese books the Bilor Mountains, and it
is by this name, or the Turki form. Belurtag, that they are
generally described in European works. It seems likely
that this name of Mirtai, also written Milotai, is merely a
‘Corruption, or rather a dialectal variation of Bilotag, the
final syllable being softened and the h replaced by
This latter change is a common one in the dialect of the
Kirghis mountaineers, who always, for example, pro-
nounce Tashbalik (“ Stone-town' 7 ), Taslimalik. These
Mirtai Mountains, which are described os covered with
perpetual snow, extend nearly ten miles from base to
summit, and are composed of three series of strata, of
which the middle series contains the jade, the lowest and
highest being formed of common rock. They are called
Yii Shan, or “Jade Mountains, 1 ' in modern Chinese
geographical books, just as the Zarafshan, the “Gold-
scatterer, M is known to the Chinese by the alternative
name of Yii Ho, or “Jade River/' In ancient times, as
shown above, the chief supply of jade was obtained from

^ %v Mil

JADE AS A MINERAL*

293

places within the boundaries of the district of Khofcan, in
modern times the largest quantity comes from Yarkand,
All the principal mountain quarries and jade-producing
rivers are comprised within these two provinces*

There are many Chinese books on Tu rids tan (*63?/ Yu),
Among the most important are the voluminous geographi-
cal description, with maps, entitled Hsi yu Von chii
published by imperial commission in the reign of the
Emperor OKien Lung, and the Hsin chi any chih luek ?
another detailed description of the New Dominion {Hsin
Chiang\ issued also with the imperial imprimatur in a, d,
1821, the first year of the reign of the Emperor Too
Huang. 1 have taken the Chinese names of the places
principally from these two works, the original Turki
names being so variously transliterated in Chinese by
different authors.

A fuller account of the jade quarries is to be found in
the Hsi Yu S/mi tao chi, u Description of the Rivers of
Chinese Turkistan,” in five books, by Ying-lio, a learned
Manelm officer, published in the year 1823. This gives an
itinerary from Yarkand to the mines in the Mirtai Moun-
tains, 410 U distant :

From Yarkand to Posgam, South, 70 U

Posgam to Khan Langar, Southwest, 5 0 li
Khan Langar to Yengi Chuang, Southwest, 150 li
Yengi Chuang to Tsipan Mountains, Southwest, 30 li
Tsipan Mountains to Atzn’Khansar, Southwest, 50 li
Atzu Khansar to Mirtai Mountains, Southwest, 00 li

It also gives, under the description of the Yarkand
River, an account of r lie stations along the course of the
river-bed at which the camps are pitched when the Moham-
medan natives are levied for the 44 jade-fishing,” This
starts from Khusharab, a town the name of which is
derived from words meaning 44 twin peaks” and “ water,”
where the river emerges from the precipitous K’nnlun
Range, some 200 li distant in a southwesterly direction
from the chief town of Yarkand, This is the u sixth jade
camp,” situated on the south bank of the river, 40 li

. , -i. *

from this is the town of Katsung, the “fifth jade canrip/*
GO II further the town of Alimas, the “fourth jade camp/*
both situated on the north bank. 50 li in a northeasterly
direction from Alimas we come to the village of Targachi,
the “ third jade camp/ ? 30 li northeast of this to Ulugh-
ining, the “second jade camp/' and 30 U northeast of this
to Ulughtop, the “first jade camp, ’■ all these three being
pitched upon the south bank of tlie river. This “first
jade camp- 1 is distant 50 li in a southwesterly direction
from Yarkand. When the expedition is on foot the camps
are pitched for some three days at each of these stations,
so that the river bed may be thoroughly searched, and the
men are finally sent out into the mountains at Katsung, to
complete the tally of the quantity required for the annual
imperial tribute. No piece of less weight than two ounces
is accepted.

The jade produced here is said to be of the best quality,
of brilliant color and strong substance, and to emit the
clearest sound when struck with the hammer, vibrating
for a long time, till the sound stops abruptly in the way
characteristic of jade. In the twenty -ninth year of
(Wien lung (1764), as Ying-ho relates, the Governor of
Yarkand forwarded to the Emperor thirty-nine large slabs,
weighing altogether 3975 catties (the catty being equivalent
to 1 1/3 lbs.)* to make the peculiar musical stones called
citing, besides a large supply of smaller slabs; and, the
year after, sent a further large quantity for imperial use.
The slabs were all quarried in the Mlrtai Mountains, and
sawn there by natives of S angaria.

* 24 chn, or pearls, make 1 lift /if/ 1 or tael, — 1 1 8 oz. uroirdupcri*

1 GUftng make 1 or catty, = 1 1 3 lb. H

1Q0 chin make 1 tan, or picul, =. 188 I $ lbs.

Tli e ordinary measures of length are :

10 fm, or Hues, make 1 txrtn? or inch

10 t&Uto make 1 ch'ih, or foot = 13.1 inches, English

5 eh'ih make 1 pu t or pace = 5.1164 feet

2 pu inafe 1 chang — 10.128 feet

ISO chang make 1 U =1895 feet

200 li make 1 tu, or degree

Tins was the table used by the missionaries in their survey of the Chinese
empire in the year 1700, based upon the ch'ih used by in the palace,..

JADE AS A MIX Eli A L,

These cICmg are figured in Ta C/c ing hut then , the
Government Statutes of the reigning dynasty, as well as in
several foreign books on Chinese music,* They are carved
in the form of an obtuse-angled carpenter's square with
two limbs, the longer one called the “drum/* the shorter,
the "'limb' 7 ; and are perforated near the angle to be
suspended by silk cords on the wooden frames, which are
elaborately carved in the form of phonixes and hung with
silk tassels, rhe jade stones being decorated in gold with,
dragons in pursuit of pearls. They are modelled after an
ancient design figured by Biot, 4 the different parts having
a definite numerical proportion, so that if the breadth of
rhe drum is represented as 1, the length of the limb is 2 ,
the length of the drum 3, and the breadth of the limb 1 1/2.
These eft* ing are used only in imperial ceremonies, and are
of two kinds, the VecJihtg, or " 4 single musical stones,’ 7
and the pien ch' ing. or 4 4 stone chime/ 7
The tech'iug are twelve in number, giving the twelve
notes of the Chinese diatonic scale. Each one is hung on
a separate wooden frame and struck with a hammer of
hardwood. They vary in size and thickness : from the
largest, which lias the drum 2.187 feet long, .729 broad,
the limb 1.458 long, 1.0025 broad, and is .0729 thick, to
the smallest, which has the drum 1,153 feet Jong, 0.384 feet
broad, file limb *708 long, .576 broad, and is .1296 thick.
The pien ch' ing, or 44 stone chime/ 7 comprises sixteen
pieces of jade of similar form, all of the same size, but of
different thickness, and suspended on one wooden frame,
in two rows of eight. They have the drum 1.0935 feet
long, .3645 broad, the limb .729 long, .64675 broad, and

and Regis informs us that Parennin found the degree to contain 300 H t each
measuring 180 chang of 10 ch'ih.

Afterwards the present rate of 250 li to a degree was adopted in order to
make it one-tenth of a French league and one-twenty-fifth of a degree, and this
last scale is found on the charts of D’Ativille and in most modern Chinese
maps (See The Chinese Commercial Guid?< by S. W Williams, LL, D.
Chapter V. Moneys, Weights* etc., in China).

* Chinese Music, by J. A. Van Aalst* Publications of Chinese Imperial
Maritime Customs. II. Special Series: No. G* 1884, pp. 48, 40.

t Le Tscheou Li, ou Rites des Tscfieou, traduit par E. Biot, 1851, Tome II,
page 531.

296

.JADE AS A MINERAL.

range in thickness from .06068 to .1296 of a foot. The
thickest gives, of course, the deepest note; and the jade
chime includes four lower notes in addition to the ordi-
nary twelve of the diatonic scale. Mr. van Aalst gives tlie
scale in common musical notation, and adds that the
special function of the jade instruments is to give one
sound at the end of each word of the air. in order to
“receive the sound” and transmit it to the next word.
They are exclusively used in court religious ceremonies,
but there are other musical stones curved out of jade for
private use, like those in the form of a bat, symbol of
happiness, and of two fish,* symbol of fertility, figured in
the same paper. These are called chi ch' ing, propitious
musical stones, and are often given as presents, like the
.ju-i, jade sceptres.

To return to our Chinese book on Turkistan. It relates
farther that in the forty-ninth year of Ch' ien-lu ng (1784)
an official of the imperial household was dispatched to
Yarkand with seventy workers in jade, who brought back
five hundred large tablets of jade to be engraved with
imperial patents of rank, etc., and fifty large square
pieces to be carved into state seals, as well as three hun-
dred smaller tablets and thirty small blocks for seals, the
total weight of which amounted to four thousand seven
hundred and fifty-two catties.

In the fifty-fifth year (1790) of the same reign there was
a fire in the palace, in which all the musical instruments
were burned and the Governor of Yarkand had sixty-Conr
large slabs and eight smaller ones, for the manufacture of
new ch'inff, mined from the Margulugh Mountains, t
which produce a fine jade of green color, dark and

*0hi citing yu iH a propitious stone with fish/' gives the punning mean-
ing of “good hick and abundance/’ the second nnd fourth characters being
replaced by others of the same sou ml* 4

f The Margulugh Mountains, which form part of the great K’un Lun range,
pass into the Mivtai Mountains on the north and are continuous with tile 2s an
Shan or Southern Mountains of K hotair towards the southeast. They are
almost unexplored and are sparsely peopled by the curious Aryan race of
Thakpo. photographed and described by Sir Douglas Forsyth in the Report of
his Mission to Yarkand in 187-5.

JADE AS A MINERAL. 297

brilliant, marked with blood-reel stains. This was brought
to the city of Yarkand by the Mohammedan natives of
the Yolarik Mountains, distant 270 U S. W. of Yarkand,,
and went therefore under the name of Yolarik jade.

The jade quarries in the Mirtai Mountains had been
closed on account of trouble with the natives, but in the
fourth year of Qhia-oK hiy (1800) they were opened again,
and there were quarried ten thousand catties of the finest
green jade, eight thousand catties of onion-green and white
of the second quality, and three thousand catties of white
jade in smaller pieces. This immense weight was carted
as far east as Karashar, but had to be left there on account
of the difficulties of transport, “ When I (Ying-ho) had
passed the Ushaktal (Dwarf Willow) Military Station,
which is 220 U X. E. of Karashar, the natives guiding me
to the next stage showed it to me, lying in a heap on the
northeast of the road, half buried under a pile of dust,
more than two feet above the level of the ground.’ 7

Then follows an account of the more recent regulations
for fishing for jade in the bed of the Zarafshau River, and
of the six camps on its banks, occupied by the native
Mohammedans in the autumn, when five hundred men
were levied for the work, each ten under an onbashU to get
the yearly quantity of 18,500 catties requisitioned by the
Emperor,

In addition to all of this jade levied from the Yarkand
country, a supply was also still requisitioned from the
district of K ho tan, according to a memorial from the
Governor dated the fourth year of Chict-ch? ing (1800),
which stated that jade was obtained from five different
places; but added that only that fished from the Yuriing-
lt&sh River was of good quality, and he accordingly pro-
posed that the supply from the Karakash River, Snngku,
Shuya, and the Karango Mountains should be stopped,
and that the first river only should be fished for fifteen
days during the autumn, to supplement the supply of fine
jade from Yarkand, as the largest pieces found there were
also fit for the manufacture of the musical stones.

The Karakash River, the name of which means u black

29S

JADE AS A MINERAL.

jade,” has always been one of the chief sources of the
the mineral. Sangku is about 300 li southwest of Khotan,
situated near the defile through which the Karakasli River
pierces the K’un Lun range ; Shuya, also on the northern
slope of the range, lies to the east of Sangku, in the valley
of a small tributary of the same river ; Karangotak, which
signifies in Turki “Dark Mountains,” is described as 200
li due south of Khotan, on the northern bank of the
Yurungkasli River. The natives of Khotan have always
lied for refuge to the rugged wooded glades of these hills
when attacked by Turk or Tartar nomads from the north,
as related by Ream sat.*

Afterwards the Mohammedan rebellion broke out in
Eastern Turkistan and the jade quarries were closed,
there being no further demand from China, and no more
trade was allowed during tile rule of Yakub Beg at Kash-
gar (1865-77).

It was during this reign that some of the deserted
quarries in the upper part of the Karakasli River valley
were visited by Dr. Stoliczku, the naturalist attached to
Sir Douglas Forsyth's Yarkand embassy, who was there
in the year 1873. lie writes :

‘ 1 The portion of tits Kuan l un range which extends fttam Shall klula east-
ward towards Khotan appeals to consist enturely of gneiss, syenitic gneiss,
and motumorphic rocks, these being quantmse. micaceous, or horn blend ic
schists. On the southern declivity of tins range,, which runs along the right
hank of the Karakash River, are situated the old ’jadenidhcs, or rather quarries,
formerly worked by the Chinese. They are about seven miles distant from
the Khirghis encampment, Rehikchi, which itself is about twelve miles south-
east of Shahidula. I had the pleasure of visiting the mines in company with
l)r, Rellew and Captain Riddulph, with a Yarkamlee official as our guide,

“ We found the principal jade locality to be about one and a half miles
distant from the river, and at a height of about five hundred feet above the
level of the same. .Just in this portion of the range a few short spurs abut
from the higher hills, all of which are, however, as usually, thickly covered
with debris and sand, the result of disintegration of the original rock. The
whole has the appearance as if an extensive slip of the mountain -side had
occurred.

Viewing the mines from a little distance, the place seemed to resemble a
number of pigeon-holes worked in [he side of the mountain, except that they
were rather irregularly distributed. On closer inspection we saw a number of

A. R emu sal. HUtoire de la -mile de Khotan, Paris, 1820,

JADE AS A MINERAL,

299

pits and holes dug out in the slopes, extending over a height of nearly a couple
of hundred feet, and over a length of about a quarter of a mile. Each of these
excavations had n heap of fragments of rock and jade at its entrance. Most
of them are only from ten to twenty feet high and broad, anti their depth
rarely exceeds twenty or thirty feet ; only a few show some approach to low
galleries of moderate length, and one or two are said to have a length of eighty
or a hundred feet. Looking on this mining operation as a whole, it is, no
doubt, a very inferior piece of the miner's skill ; nor could the workmen have
been provided with any superior instruments, I estimated the number of holes
at about a hundred and twenty, but several had been opened only experi-
mentally, an operation which laid often to be resorted to on account of the
superficial sand concealing the underlying rock.

** The rock of which the low spurs at the base of the range arc composed
is partly a thin-bedded, rather sandy, syenitic gneiss, partly mica and horn-
bleudic schist. The feldspar gradually disappears entirely in the schistose
beds, which on weathered planes often have the appearance of u laminated
sandstone. They include the principal jade-yielding rocks, being traversed
by veins of a pure white, apparently zeohtic mineral, varying in thickness-
from a few to about forty feet, and perhaps even more. The strike of the
veins is from north-by-west to sou th-by- east, or sometimes almost due east- and-
west; and their dip is either very high towards north, or they run vertically.
The mineral has the appearance of alhite, but the lustre is more silky, or per-
haps rather glassy, and it is not in any way altered before the blowpipe, either
by itself, or with borax and soda. The texture is somewhat coarsely crystal-
line, rhombohedric faces being on a fresh fracture clearly traceable. It some-
times contains iron pyrites in very small particles, and a few flakes of biotite
are also occasionally observed, fills zeolitic rock is again traversed by veins
of nephrite, commonly called jade; which, however, also occurs in nests. It
is a white, tough mineral, having an indistinct cleavage in two directions,
while in the other directions the fracture is finely granular or splintery, as in
true nephrite. Portions of this mineral, which is apparently the same as
usually called white jade, have sometimes a fibrous structure. This while
jade rarely occupies the -whole thickness of a vein ; it usually only occurs
along the sides in immediate contact with the zeolitic vein-rock, with which it
appears sometimes to be very closely connected. The middle part of some of
the veins and most of the others entirely consists of the common green jade,
which is characterized by a thorough absence of cleavage, great toughness,
and rather dull vitreous lustre. The hardness is always below 7, generally
only equal to that of common feldspar, or very little higher, though the
polished surface of the stone appears to attain a greater hardness after long
exposure to the air. The color is very variable, from pale to somewhat darker
green, approaching that of pure serpentine. The pale-green variety is by far
the most common, and is in general use for cups, mouthpieces for pipes,
rings, and other articles used as charms and ornaments. I saw’ veins of the
pale-green jade fully amounting in thickness to ten feet; but it is by no means
easy to obtain large pieces of It, the mineral being generally fractured in all
directions. Like the crystalline vein-mineral, neither the white nor the green
variety of jade is affected by the blow-pipe heat, with or without addition of

300 JADE AS A MINERAL.

borax or soda. Green jade of a brighter color and higher trauslacency is com-
paratively rare, and already, on that account, no doubt much more valuable*
It h usually only found in thin veins of one or a few inches; and even then it
is gen era lly full of flaws .

The BdakcM locality is f however, not t lie only one which yielded jade to
the Chinese, There is no reason to doubt the existence of jade along the
whole of the Ivuenhin range, as far as the mica and hornblendic schists extend.
The great obstacle in tracing out the veins, and following them when once
discovered, is the large amount of superficial debris and shifting sand which
conceals the original rock in eitu. However, fragments of jade may he seen
among the boulders of almost every stream which comes down from the range.

-*A great number of the better-polished ornaments, such as rings, etc. , sold
in l lie bazaar of Yarkand, have the credit of coming from Kkotan; possibly
they are made there by Chinese workmen, hut the art of carving seems to
have entirely died away, and indeed it is not to he expected that such strict
Mohammedans, as the Yarkandees mostly are, would eagerly cultivate it,"*

Since the re-conquest of the country by the Chinese in
the year 1877, pieces of jade in small quantities find their
way again to Peking, but nothing fit to be carved into large
vases such as were turned out from the imperial workshops
in the reign of Clt ten-lung during the second half of the
eighteenth century. This emperor was an enthusiastic
patron of art workmanship, and most of the elaborately
carved pieces of artistic jade which have found their way
to Europe and America date from this time, many having
been taken from the summer palaces at Yuan Ming Yuan
in I860* He was a poet, too, and proud of his penmanship,
and would often have his verses in honor of some temple
or bit of pretty scenery engraved in facsimile on jade
tablets, to be mounted in a screen, or perhaps on a pair of
teacups, with the magic seal Yu tt y u Imperial auto-
graph, 1 * below. The round plaque of moss-green jade, a
foot across, in the Bishop Collection, is an example of this,
being inscribed with an imperial ode on the Buddhist monk
Bddliidlmrma, who is represented crossing the waves, stand-
ing on a reed plucked from the shore, with the pilgrim's
staff across one shoulder, having a book slung from the
end, and the alms-bowl in his other hand.f

* .Report of <r Jfim'on to York nul in 1S73, by Sir T. D. Forsyth. Calcutta,
187 >, Chapter VIII, 14 Geological Notes by the late T>r* Stoliezka/’

f Bodhidhamm, the twenty-eighth Indian and first Chinese Buddhist patri-
arch, the son of a king in Southern India, came to China in ihe year a. d. 520,

hbv

JADE AS A MINERAL.

301

The inscription reads:

Upon a single reed floating over the waves,

Whether coming or whether returning,

With rapt gaze and hands folded in sleeves,
lie hides tranquil and undisturbed.

As a means to cross the broad river,

A reed was sufficient for his power.

No other could perform such a deed,

We bow in adoration to the holy monk,

Yit i*a — composed and written by the emperor.”

Oh die other side of the same plaque we have a view of
Golden Island (Chin Shan), near Chinkiang Fu, which
stands out so picturesquely in the middle of the Yangtze
river near the mouth of the Grand Canal, covered with
Buddhist shrines and monasteries.

The inscription, a rhyming verse of eight stanzas, reads:
fl The summit of the pagoda, crowned with its pointed spire,
lias the azure vault of heaven above, naught else stands so high.

The pilgrim sees here a peerless evidence of the sacred law of Buddha,
Which lie cannot approach without feelings of awe and reverence.
Although the picturesque scene, the river ami the hill, are the same as of
yore,

We will venture to add to our old verses yet another measure.

Though in scholarly lore we cannot come near the poetry of TungqVo,*
Whose old rhymes we have borrowed once more to compose these stanzas. ”
Below :

“ In the cyclical year yl yu (a. d. 1765) in the spring, during Our journey
to the south, We ascended the Golden Hill (Chin Shan), climbed to the
top of the pagoda and composed for the third time these stanzas ending
with the same old rhymes as before. We also drew a sketch of the view,
which we presented on leaving to the Temple Hall Miao Kao T ang, to be
kept there as a memento of Our enjoyment of the prospect,

( Aii pi J ’ — Penned by tlic Emperor,” whose name follows
in two square seals in antique script {Ch'ien
Lung) y the first character engraved, the second
cut in relief.

bringing with him the precious patra, the a 1ms- bowl of Buddha, the prototype
of the holy grail of Christian legend. He reached Canton on the twenty-first
day of the ninth month, and after a short stay there came north to Loyong, the
residence of the emperor of the Wei, a Tartar dynasty devoted to Buddhism,
There he remained in silent meditation for nine years, hence receiving the
name of the “ wall-gazing Brahman,” til] his death in a. d. 529.

*Su Tuug p’o, one of the most celebrated statesmen and poets of the Sung
dynasty, flourished a. d. 10fifi-110L The practice of composing new verses
with lines ending in rhymes borrowed from old poets is a common intellectual
exercise In China.

302

JADE AS A MINERAL.

Tlie mines of Upper Burma are the chief source of the
white jade flecked with bright green, called feUs'iti by the
Chinese, which is so highly prized by them and largely
imported for the manufacture of ornaments and articles of
personal adornment. This is rightly identified by Pnrn-
pellv* with jadelte, which differs from nephrite, in its
greater specific gravity, as well us in physical structure
and in chemical composition. The Chinese, although igno-
rant of the scientific difference, always distinguish the two
minerals, and our author devotes the last section of his
Discourse to this precious mineral. With all due defer-
ence to his disclaimer, it seems to occur also in the province
of Yunnan, + although more sparingly than in Burma ; and
I think that the bowl of Qmyang. alluded .to* might well
have been of this material, which is certainly hard enough
to mb down pure gold it the surface be not perfectly
polished.

The Chinese imitate this, as well as white jade, so suc-
cessfully in glass, that it Is almost impossible to distinguish
a false bangle or ring by mere inspection, although it will
give a different tone when struck by the finger-nail. The
glass is peculiarly dense and heavy, and contains nearly
half its weight of oxide of lead.

Specimens of ancient jade are much sought after, and
Section VIII is devoted to a description of the different
varieties, of the curious conceits of the Chinese collector,
and the affectionate way in which lie cherishes the cor-
roded piece, removes the rust, and brings to it a fine polish
after months of patient effort. The idea that jade which
lias lain buried in the earth for over a thousand years
becomes as soft as common stone, Is, of course, taken
advantage of by the maker of false antiques, who will soak
an object carved out of steatite in some colored decoction,

* R. Pumpelly. Geological Researched in. China, etc. Smithsonian Contri-
butions, No. 202, 1866 t pp. 117, 118.

f The Yihi 17/, or ** Yunnan Jade," of the modern Chinese, considered by
them a variety of is a dark mottled green, sometimes almost black ,

kind of jadeite, of high specific gravity. There are crude specimens in the
London Museum presented by the late Col. Guthrie, The jadcite ju4 (No
aUlG) is an example, though not so dark in color as some specimens.

JADE AS A MINERAL.

303 .

and produce the most recherche aubergine-purple, hibiscus-
yellow, or other tint hardly to be seen in true jade, and
imitate the crackle of the most ancient porcelain to deceive
the unwary. If the buyer remonstrates because he can
scratch it with the finger-nail, lie is told that this is only a
test of its great antiquity. So Komusat* relates that M.
Bertin, who had, after a lengthened correspondence with
the missionaries in China, gathered together so many
precious materials to illustrate the arts and products of
that empire, ought certainly to have possessed some
objects carved in jade ; and yet all the things from his col-
lection ticketed yu (jade) were really translucid steatites, a.
kind of soft stone that no one acquainted with the first
elements of mineralogy could confound with jade.

Prehistoric jade implements are rare in China. I have
seen only one arrow-head, which is in my collection in the
Loan Exhibition at the South Kensington Museum. Jade
celts of the perforated type are occasionally to be found in
collections, and are known by the name of yao chan, medi-
cine spades, being supposed to be relics of Taoist herbalists
of olden times, and to have been used by them to dig up-
medicinal roots. They are often carved with an ornamen-
tal design in relief, to make ornaments to be worn on the
girdle, not sufficiently to disguise the original form. Some-
times an ancient emblem of rank, such as used to be held
in the hand of high officers at court ceremonies, is for sale
at a prohibitive price. f Symbols were made of jade from.

* Richer dies stir In Substance Mute rale y nppdee par lex Chinois Pierre. lu f
d sur le Jaxpe des anciens. Suite de lllistoire de In Yille <le Khotan, pur M.
Abel Rcnmsat, 1820.

f Since the above was written 1 have received a water-color drawing of one
of t hese ancient emblems, Xo. 13200 in the Bishop Collection. It represents a
kttei, or baton, of oblong shape with pointed apex, such ns used to be held hi
the hands of a high official in full court dress. The surface seems to be cor-
roded and much discolored, to a clouded dark reddish-brown tint in some
parts. This word kuei is a very ancient character in the Chinese language,
written at first without the radical yu (jade), which is now' usually prefixed to
the ancient form. It means primarily a baton or sceptre, and was given by the
sovereign when he conferred a fief as a symbol of feudal rank, distinguishing
the rank of the noble to whom it was given by differences in its form anti
length.

304

JADE AS A MINERAL.

the earliest times, for use in the worship of the powers of
nature, heaven, earth, the four cardinal points, the sun,
moon, and stars. They are still used in imperial worship,
and there are six figured in the Government Statutes of
the Reigning Dynasty quoted above. There are three
round pi; the largest, Figure 1, over six-tenths of a foot in
diameter, perforated in the middle with a small round
hole, of mottled u sky-green ’'-colored jade, used in sacri-
ficial worship on the Altar of Heaven and the altar for liar-
vest prayers; the next, Figure 2, two-thirds smaller, made of
clouded- reddish jade, for use on the Altar of the Sun,
matching the porcelain sacrificial vessels and libation-cups,
which are covered with red glaze ; the third, Figure 3,
thirty-six-hundredths of a foot across, pierced with a
square hole in the centre, made of pure white jade, match-
ing the white porcelain, for use on the Altar of the Moon;
the yellow isimg , Figure 4, for use on the Altar of the
Earth, is carved out of yellow jade, with square base four-
tenths of a foot across, and rounded top, marked at one of
the corners with natural lines in the form of a range of
mountains. There are two li uei, each thirfy-sixdiundredths
of a foot in diameter, of square section, with a small proc-
ess [ti) projecting on either side ; one, Figure 5, rounded
above and below, of white jade, with a faint yellowish
tinge ; the other, Figure 6, flattened, made of green- colored
jade — both used in sacrificial worship on the altar of the
land and grain.

In ancient times these jade symbols used to be buried
in the earth, offering a certain analogy to the round stone
tc whorls, 7 ' with inscriptions, found in such large quantities
by Schliemann, in the ruins of ancient Troy, the use of
which has so puzzled archeologists. The peculiar 11 cash 3 '
of the Chinese, which has circulated some three thousand
years, is said to be modelled on the same, its round circum-
ference symbolizing the vault of heaven, its square hole in
the centre, earth.

Jade lias often been used in the manufacture of talismans
and amulets, and in Chinese collections we find certain
small round or octagonal cylinders, which have a remark-

JADE AS A MINERAL.

305

able resemblance to the ancient cylinders inscribed witli
figures and inscriptions of Babylonian, Assyrian, and
Persian origin, like the well-known signet cylinder of
King Urukh, of Chaldea, found by Sir It. Porter, and
copied by Professor It aw] in son,* from his Travels.

It is recorded in the official annals of the period that
signets of this kind were worn, attached by silk cords,
strung with pearls and precious stones, to the girdle of the
official costume of the mandarins during the Han dynasty,
which Nourished two centuries before and after the
Christian era. The Annals of the After Han describe
those of princes and nobles to have been made of white
jade ; those worn by officers with annual salary of 2000 to
400 piculs of rice, of black rhinoceros horn ; officers of
lower rank, private scholars, and students, wearing ivory
signets. They were made on the cyclical day mao of the
first moon, and were hence called kang mao. They were
abolished temporarily by the usurper Wang Hang, in the
year a. d. II, for a siiperstitutkms reason, the char-
acter mao forming part of the character Liu, the family
name of the 7 Ian.

The specimen before us, No. 1320$ of Mr. Bishop’s
collection, is an octagonal cylinder, two inches long,
engraved with four characters in antique script on each of
its faces, the whole inscription being like this, when
spread out :

f * May this amulet of the day mao of the first moon,

With miraculous power pervade the four quarters,

That the red, blue, white, and yellow,

All four colors may be duly harmonized.

May the charm recited by imperial order,

To instruct the dread monsters find dragons,

Be efficacious in all dangerous diseases,

Which 1 could not dare to withstand/"

The Chinese are so devoted to researches into antiquity,
and have published so many books on numismatics,
ancient bronzes, sacrificial vessels and implements, old
inscriptions and kindred subjects, that we naturally

* Ruwliuson's Ancient Monarchies^ VoL 1, page 04.

306

JADE AS A MINERAL.

expect to find a series of special works on jade. The
absence of such works would show the rarity of ancient
specimens of jade. One of the most celebrated books on
bronze antiquities is the Po leu fou t in thirty books,
written by Wang Fu in t lie beginning of the twelfth cen-
tury, in which several hundred vessels are figured, with
a facsimile of the inscription upon each. A revised edition
was published during the Yuan dynasty, in the Chlh-ia
period (a. jx 1308-1311), in large folio, the vases being
represented of the original size. I have in my possession
an incomplete copy of this last edition. New editions
were issued during the Ming dynasty, in the seventh year
of Chia-ching (1528) and in the cyclical year Teuei mao
(1603) of the reign of Wan-U. Of more recent editions
one of the best is that edited by Huang Slietig, published
in the eighteenth year of Cliien-lung (1753). The same
scholar edited at the same time another illustrated col-
lection of antiquities of about one-third of the extent of
the Po leu t'ou, called K'ao leu fw, in ten books, by
hi i Ta-lin, first published during the Sung dynasty, in t lie
seventh year (1092) of the Yuan-gn period (1066-93).
This is more interesting to ns, because the eighth book
comprises a small collection of jade in the possession of Li
Po-sMh, a native of Lu-chiang, including a tiger-shaped
tablet, scabbard guards, a round symbol, girdle buckles
and appendages, a double-handled wine-cup engraved with
spiral ornament, etc.

With this edition of the two books on ancient bronzes
there is usually bound up at the end another work,
entitled Kuyut'ot^ “Illustrations of Ancient Jade,' 5 in
two books, by Clm Te-jun, introduced by the same editor,
Huang Sheng, in a Preface, also dated 1753. The original
Introduction by the author, who flourished during the
Yuan dynasty, is dated the first year of the period
Chi Pell eng (a. d. 1341). He says that “from the time he
left college lie used to visit the houses of the princes and
celebrated men of the capital city of Yen (the modern
Peking), as well as the collection in the imperial palace,
and examine carefully the different objects, so as to appro

JADE AS A MINERAL. 307

elate the excellency of the things worn and vessels
fashioned by the ancients, and to figure a few examples of
such as had survived, and which he had seen himself, to
present to those who take an interest in the study/’

The most curious relic of jade-carving figured in this
volume is the first, entitled ‘"Apparatus for South-pointing
Chariot/’ Figure , which is described thus: “The
chariot apparatus figured above measures in height 1.42
feet, and is .74 of a foot in length below. The man’s
figure, carved out of jade, has one hand constantly pointing
towards the south, the bottom of the foot toeing drilled with
a round hole, so that it turns upon a pivot, poised on the
head of the fabulous monster Ch’hyn.* In the period
Yen-yn (1314-20) I succeeded in getting a sight of this at
Hie Imperial Decree office of Yao Mu-an. The color of the
jade had a yellowish tint, mingled with bright red of
antique shade, and it had marks of erosion from having
been buried in the earth/’ The south-pointing chariot is
said by Chinese commentators to have been invented by
the ancient Emperor Huang Ti , and to have suggested
Hie invention of the mariners’ compass, called by them the
south-pointing needle.

The next figure is that of a round medallion, pi, a foot
in diameter, with a round hole in the centre surrounded
by a zone of spiral ornament, and, outside, a second zone
of interlacing dragons. Next follow in order sword-clasps,
round ornaments in the form of coiling lizards, and girdle
buckles of varied designs,

Tire second book contains figures of insignia of rank,
ornaments for the girdle and for the ears, a piece of jade
in the form of a cicada, from the mouth of a corpse, a
winged monster said to have been dug up bv a peasant
from the grave of the ancient king Tai K’ang and bought

* A legendary being generally considered to be I be first great rebel, wbo
sought to overthrow the ancient Emperor Rmng Ti, and the reputed inventor
of warlike weapons. Some pretend that he was the head of a confederacy of
Si brothers, wbo had the bodies of beasts, but human speech, with fore-
heads of iron, and wbo fed on [be dust of the earth. His spirit is believed to
reside in the planet Mars, which influences the conduct of warfare. See
Mayer's Chinese Reader's Manual * page JO,

308

-JADE AS A MINERAL.

from him by imperial command by Chao Tzu-ang to be
used as a letter-weight, jade horses, girdle buckles, a
wine-cup of form and design similar to the one in the other
collection of Li Po-shih mentioned above, ornaments for
scabbard, and a sword-liandle.

These are, however, but meagre collections of small
extent compared with that contained in the one special
book on the subject, which is entitled also Ku yu fou, or
in full Kit yu foil j?u, il Illustrated Description of Ancient
Jade.” This is the catalogue, in one hundred books, with
more than seven hundred figures, of the collection of jade
belonging to the first Emperor of the Southern Sung
dynasty, who had resigned the empire to his son in the
year 1175, the year before it was published by an imperial
commission of nineteen members, including one writer and
four artists, presided overby the President of the Board
of Kites, Lung Ta-yuan, the author of the original preface,
which reads thus :

“ His Majesty the Great Exalted Glo rifle r of Vito, the Sacred Emperor,
endowed by Heaven with love for antiquity, and therefore fond of searching
the ancient records, reposing from the toils of slate, one day quoted to us the
Annals of Ohhi, which say that, “The Cb'u Slate had nothing which they
deemed precious* it was only virtue which they thought precious/’ Therefore
what is there in old curios to be fornl of ? Yet to perfect knowledge iL is
necessary to study the real things, is what the sacred classics teach us most
clearly. The sacrificed vases like the ting, yi, tmn t and Ui,* are important
vessels, ami these have all been described in the I}%ku and K'ao ku hooks.
But the largest of these vessels are big enough to hold an ox T and even the
smallest to contain a good-sized measure of grain, so that very few could he
carried in the girdle pocket or placed upon the side-table. For those who like
to lake them away in their sleeves, handy to he caressed, and easily carried
about, only pieces of ancient jade are available. Therefore from the complete
collection of specimens preserved in the imperial palace, when resting from a
myriad a if airs, he orders his near attendants to bring some out to rejoice his eyes.

* These vessels were anciently cast in bronze. The ting is a caldron with
two handles or ears, either of rounded body with three legs, or of oblong form
with four legs ; it was originally a cooking vessel. The j/i is a Hat bottomed
vessel w ithout feet for holding sacrificial millet, the Uun a trumpet-mouthed
vase for holding sacrificial wine, the yi also a vase for wine, engraved with
cloud -scrolls and similar designs from which it. got its name. The old forms
are copied in the present day in porcelain, jade, etc,, as well as in metal. The
Buddhists have adopted the Hag as an incense- burner and the Uun as a pair of
flower vases fur their altar set.

JADE AS A MINERAL.

309

His Majesty the Great Exalted Sacred Emperor, of supernatural wisdom and
celestial genius, and naturally endowed with knowledge of things, although
he allows his mind some distractions in leisure hours, yet lie is not lost in a
mania for curios, but consults the classics as mirrors of antiquity to perfect
his sacred scholarship.

He has lately, wearied with the weight of alfairs of state, resigned the
throne, and stays highly reverenced in the celestial palace. His Majesty die
Reigning Emperor, rivalling Shim of Yu in filial piety, and equal of Y(io* of
T ang in power, waits upon llis Majesty the Great Exalted Sacred Emperor,
a model to his family and state, holding the whole world in trust for his
delectation, so that of all the precious things Unit can feast the eyes, there is
nothing that he does not search out and reverently otter. 80 His Majesty the
Emperor himself, when tired with toil, has rested awhile at the Tang-ting
pavilion, and during his visits there has compiled a full description of the rare
pieces of precious jade belonging to various dynasties. Yet he is not satisfied
with its completeness, and he has commissioned his officers to take silver and
select move pieces, and has acquired altogether more than seven hundred
specimens, .which he has reverentially presented to the Te shou kung, to bo
kept there as pure ornaments for the side-tables of His Majesty the Great
Exalted Sacred Emperor.

+ £ He has accordingly commissioned us his servants, Ta-yuau and his coD
leagues, to arrange them in proper order, to collect artists in color to draw the
different forms, to state the exact dimensions, to make careful quotations from
hooks, and to write a complete description of each piece,

Lt His servant has heard that the scholars of olden times likened jade to
virtue, because dirt would not stain it, nor friction injure it, because it was of
liquid aspect yet brilliant, of warm appearance yet strong. So from the Three
Dynasties to the present day, all the important vessels of the Ancestral Temple
and all the chief treasures of the imperial court have been fashioned out of fine
jade. From the Bon of Heaven down to the hereditary princes and high offi-
cers, all carried or wore jade in the form of kuei, chang t /man, pi t f and the
like, each denoting a particular purpose and not used solely for ornament.

* Ym is the designation of the Great Emperor, who, with his successor Shun,
stands at the dawn of Chinese history as a model of all wisdom and sovereign
virtue. A ftcr occupying the throne for seventy years he set aside his unworthy
son Tan Chu and selected the virtuous Shun as li is successor, giving him his
two daughters in marriage, and abdicating in his favor. Shun adopted the
great Tit as his successor, the founder of a hereditary line, the first of the three
ancient dynasties, whose reign is said to have begun b, a

f The different forms of these jade antiquities are illustrated in the subse-
quent pages of the book. The kuei w as an oblong tablet or baton of rank com.
ing to a point above, the chang half a kuei, divided longitudinally. The huan t
originally an armlet of stone, was a solid ring,* the pi a circular tablet pierced
wiih a hole in the centre. These last were most highly valued in feudal times
in China and cherished as the palladium of the principality, so that a single^
would ransom several walled cities. When circular money was adopted as a
metallic currency in China during the Chou dynasty, the first bronze coins were
cast in the form of the ancient jade pi.

310

JADE AS A MINERAL,

Learned scholars of after times carefully explore dark caves and search the
recesses of mountains, sparing neither silver nor silks to buy these at large
prices. As soon as a specimen is acquired they distinguish its workmanship
and design and trace out its model and form, both telling of the different colors
of the jade and of the details of the curving. Though buried in deserted ruins,
or thrown away in old pits, yet they have not been lost, but after having long
lain hidden during thousands or hundreds of years, have one day been recov
ered by the world, to be passed from hand 1o hand as presents, so that precious
jade has also its periods of light and darkness fixed by fate,

^ Your servant, reverently obedient to the special command, has collected a
body of officers, who, after extensive research into antiquity, reference to the-
classics and other books, have figured the specimens, painted them in color,
and written a description of each. The exact dimensions of the pieces and the
presence or absence of spots and other colors are all duly described, so that it
is only necessary to open the leaves to see everything at a glance, and to know
the dynasty and the class of vessel. The jades in the collection have been
enclosed, as it were, in a casket, where there is no fear of their being broken,
and they can be seen by merely unrolling the scrolls, so that after readers may
be appealed to, to attest the truth of my words*

“ So your servants, Ta-ytian and his colleagues, though their knowledge is
not sufficient to paint the whole ox, nor their scholarship to include the two
sides of the leopard, have, reverentially honoring the imperial order, ventured
to try to cany out the task, and have com idled this Ku fit fou pu in one hun-
dred books, which they reverently offer in the imperial palace, hi the fond
hope that His Majesty, the Emperor, when free from the myriad affairs of
state, may lend his light giving glance, so that his servants may he honored
with his unbounded grace and be rendered exceedingly joy ful/'

First day of third month of third year of Ch'ttn-hsi (a. d. 1176).

After the preface there is a list uf nineteen names, giving
the members of the commission with all their titles and
honors, including one writer, and the four artists, Lin
Sung-nien, Li Thing, Ma \ nan, and Hsia Kviei, who are all
included in the large catalogue of writers and artists pub-
lished in the reign of K' ang-hsi .

The Second Preface by during Ch’un, dated the forty-
fourth year of Cll'ieti-lung (a. i>. 1779), relates how "a
manuscript copy of the book had been purchased in 177*7,
when the emperor had issued a decree to search through-
out the empire for lost books, and a copy sent to be
examined by the library commission then sitting. This
year i again read through the original manuscript and
found tile descriptions clearly written and the illustrations
cleverly executed, so that it was worthy of being compared
with the Ihunn ho Po 7cu t'ou. This book describes the

JADE AS A MINERAL.

ancient bronzes referred to in tlie Rites of the Chou
dynasty, while om* work describes the jade, so that we
could not spare either. The Po ku Vou was reprinted
several times and gained a wide circulation, while this
book remained in manuscript and attracted no notice, not
being included in the Catalogue of Literature of the Sung
History, nor quoted by older writers. Lung Ta-yuan,
whose name is included in the chapter on Imperial Syco-
phants of the Sung History, died before the date of pub-
lication. but he. is left at the head of the commission, in
memory of the work done bv him. His actions were not
worthy, but that is no reason for suppressing his book. I
again bring this book before the eye of the Emperor, that
it may again be referred to the library committee for
revision and be corrected by them, and have the honor of
being reprinted under special imperial authority.'"

The verdict of the library committee seems to have been
unsatisfactory, for they criticise the book most severely in
the Imperial Catalogue (8s a ku eh' nan shu tsung m% %
Book 116, folios on account of there being no refer-
ences to it in later books, and of certain anachronisms in
the list of members of the commission, and declare it
finally to be a fraud and not even a clever one, without any
■examination, however, of the contents. In consequence of
this adverse decision, the book, in spite of the appeal in
the preface, was not reprinted with the imperial impri-
matur, and it has now become very rare. The illustra-
tions, at least, seem to date from the Sung dynasty and to
represent the imperial collection of the period, several of
the pieces being inscribed on the back as having belonged
to the T'ang and Southern T'ang dynasties, which
flourished before the Swig. The collection is distributed
under the following classes :

T. State Treasures (Kuo pao\ Books 1-42

2. Amulets or Talismans { Ya she nr/), Books 43-46

3. For Chariots or official Divss (Yiifu), Books 47-66

4. For use in the Study ( Wen fang). Books 67-76

5. For burning Incense (Hsun lino). Books 77-81

0. Drinking Vessels ( Yin eh ' /), Books 82-90

7. Sacrilicial Vessels (17 chit), Books 91-93

8. Musical Instruments ( Yin go), Books 94 96

9. Decorative Furniture (Ohlfai she). Books 97-100.

I— O'

JADE AS A MINERAL.

The first class includes the tablets and insignia of rank

worn in former times by the Emperor and high officers,
symbols of worship, State seals, and medals. It begins with
two oblong tablets over a foot long, with two undecipher-
able characters on the face of each, attributed to the
ancient Emperor Yu Wang, from the resemblance of the
characters to those of the inscription from tile Ku-Iou
Mountains.*’ They are described as having been discovered
in two bronze tripod urns, weighing about one hundred and
fifty pounds each, during the period Chih-ho (1054-55), in
the dried bed of the Chi River, and were supposed to have
been put into the river during the T'ang dynasty as offer-
ings to the river god, being inscribed on the reverse side in
antique script— st Black kuei of Yu Wang when he
removed the waters. Precious specimen preserved in the
Treasury of K ’ ai-yuan (713-741) of the Great T'cvng
[dynasty].' 5

Many other tablets follow, but they have little preten-
sion to the great antiquity assigned to them, and some of
the inscriptions are evidently copied from pieces of ancient
bronze figured in archaeological books, and, in fact, many
of the specimens in the later parts of the collection seem to
be derived from a similar source— the fountain-head of
almost all Chinese decorative art.

The symbols used in imperial sacrificial ceremonies come
next, a long series of round, square, octagonal, and diverse
form. The round symbol, pi, twenty inches in diameter,
drawn in Book 14. folio 11, like that used in the Han
dynasty when the Emperor prayed for rain in time of
drought, has a three- Hawed dragon coiled round the cen-
tral hole, an antique model of the modern Japanese
dragon.

In Books 25 and 26 are the tiger-shaped tablets worn by
high officers in the Han dynasty, types of the gold and
silver tablets of authority described by Marco Polo, and
figured in Yule's beautiful edition of his travels. Books
27 and 2S contain libation ladles and ceremonial weapons
copied from ancient bronze implements. The next two
* Given in Legge’s Chinese Oiamcs, Vol. III. page 78.

JADE AS A MINERAL,

313

books, sword- hangers and mounts, scabbard-guards and
ornaments, halberds and maces.

The eight following books are tilled with a long succes-
sion of imperial seals, beginning with the famous palla-
dium seal of the first Emperor of the Cb' in, the builder of
the Great Wall of China in the third century b. cl, the
possession of which conferred succession to the empire,
hence its name of Ch' nan kvo hsL The seals of the Han
dynasty, which succeeded him, are square, with elaborately
carved handles in the form of dragons and other monsters,
interlacing rings, elephants, and fabulous birds. The seals
of the T' ang are of similar shape, surmounted by handles
of spotted deer, elephants, tortoises, etc. Seals of the
dynasty then reigning, the Sung, occupy Books 35-38, of
varied form, with handles of clridin, fishes, lions, or intri-
cately coiled dragons, sometimes decorated all over with
engraved dragons and phoenixes. The description of two
of these may be extracted. The first, a square seal figured
in Book 37, folio 7, with well -designed horse standing upon
it tied to a, ring in a post, to serve as a handle ; the inscrip-
tion graven in relief on the lower face being illustrated
separately. “The above seal twenty-four-hmidredths of a
foot square, thirty-oue-hundredths high, with handle in the
form of a dragon horse, is of jade of translucid white color
without spot. The inscription in four characters of
antique script reads : Seal of imperial autograph. Tins is
the seal that was always used by the Emperor II ui Tsung
(1101-25) when he wrote an autograph dispatch to one of
the princes or nobles, or to a foreign country. The handle
is said to have been carved by the clever craftsman Wang
Yu ; the horse is modelled with rare skill, and is instinct
with life, an inimitable piece of work.’* The second,
figured on folio 12 of the same book, is a square seal sur-
mounted by a unicorn, and is described : “ The above seal
is twenty-fivediumlredths of a foot square, twenty-six-hun-
dredths high, with handle carved in the form of a fabulous
unicorn. The color of the jade is pure green without flaw.
The inscription in four characters of antique scripts reads:
Seal of Feng hmt fang. This, meaning “Hall of respect-

314

JADE AS A MINERAL.

ful beauty,’ 3 is the name of the abode ot the Second con-
sort of His Majesty the Great, Exalted, Glorifier of Yao,
the sacred, long-lived emperor, a scion of the Liu family.
This consort is learned, accomplished, and virtuous, and is
known within the palace as Our Lady Liu.* She is a
skilled writer and artist, and whenever the retired Emperor
lias occasion to reply to any official, he generally directs
this lady to write the answer in the style ot the Emperors
own handwriting. The seal is that usually used by the
Second Consort upon her own private letters and paint-
ings.” The next book contains small private seals of the
Sv tiff Emperors, of curious design, one in the form of
a round box with engraved scroll border, and a handle like
a “cash” of the period, with a pair of birds and two fishes
on its rim, inscribed Hsuan-ho nten chth, made in the
period Hsnan-ho (1119-25). The seal of two characters,
formed to look like a pair of dragons, reading T' ten shuK
celestial waters, was used by the Emperor Hui Tsung on his
autograph letters and paintings.

Books 39 and 40 contain a. series of jade tablets, with
inscriptions, belonging mostly to the Han dynasty.
Books 41 and 42, a collection of jade medals with lucky
inscriptions, “out of a box in the Treasury, over two feet
long, half as much broad, and nearly afoot high, full of
different kinds of jade medals, dating from the Han and
T'emg dynasties. This box. made of solid silver, was
inscribed on one side with the date SJitm-hva (990-4),
when it was got by the Emperor Tai Tsung, the second of
the dynasty, after the conquest of Meng, the ruler of Sim
(modern Ssfi-clf nan).”

The amulets included in the second class are contained
in Books 43-46, which comprise oblong pieces with Taoist

* There is a short biography of this lady in the official annals. Sung Shu ?
Book 243, folio 14, which tells ns that she was promoted to be second consort
in 1154. and died in 1187. She was fond of luxury as well as accomplished,
and had a foot-stool made of rock-crystal for summer use which the Emperor
look for a pillow , which so mortified her that she threw it away. That lier
seal should he included is evidence of the authenticity of the collection. Such
hall-marks are still used to seal imperial verses written therein, as well as on
porcelain services made for use in them.

JADE AS A MINERAL.

315

deities and serpent handles, and others in t lie form
of ancient sword-money, reproductions of ancient coins of
different shape ; medals with appropriate legends given to
princesses on their marriage to hang on their bed-curtains,
and others as gifts to babies at their first ceremonial bath ;
concluding with the signets worn at the girdle by high
officials of the Ran dynasty, with inscriptions of similar
purport to that given above.

The third class begins with a jade figure from a fi£ south-
pointing chariot/ ’ followed by carved mounts for the end
of shafts, tires of wheels, hooks for the reins, and other
ornaments from imperial chariots. Books 49-51 give a
selection of ceremonial caps or crowns, all transfixed by
a jade pin to fasten them to the hair. The Empress’
crown of ancient jade, figured last, reminds one in general
outline of a European crown. It is described as over a
foot high, made of bright green jade, with upright lobes
carved in the form of cloud scrolls, inlaid with pieces of
yellow, red, green, and white jade, and incrusted with
pearls, corals, and precious stones, as well as divers
colored glass, so that its brilliance is truly dazzling,
and declared to be a rare and priceless relic of the
Han or Wei dynasty, Other jade objects, worn on
occasions of ceremony, follow in order. Girdles, inlaid
with ornamental plaques of jade, the parures of jade
ornaments, beads and chains, that used to be suspended
from the neck, and detached ornaments from the
same, girdle- rings, fasteners and buckles, pins for the
hair, ornaments carved in the form of a pair of fish,
phoenixes, or coiling lizards, a cicada, or tiger, ending
with a well-designed Bignonia flower three inches long of
natural-red jade, with leaves of green jade, carved out of
one piece with such skill that “only a clever artificer
of the Han could show.’ 3

The Furniture of the Scholar’s Study, which forms the
fourth class, fills ten books. Of the ink-pallets, the first
one illustrated, with its scroll border and elephant
engraved on the back, the outline of which is like that
of a vase with loop-handles, is an exact counterpart of the

316

JADE AS A MINERAL.

ink-pallet of imperial porcelain of the Sung dynasty,
No. 8, in the old album described by me,* Some of the
others are of graceful design, like the double gourd, with
leafy branch and tendrils for a handle, and a tiny gourd
for a trench to hold the water, and the pallet, shaped like
a lotus-leaf, with up til ted rim, A curious ink-pallet is
drawn in Boole 68, folio 9, a circular plaque of black and
white jade over a foot in diameter, the two colors
separated by a sharply-defined curved line, so as to form
a natural symbol of the Yin-yang, the mystic female
and male principles, separating as in the primordial chaos
molecule* It has on the back an inscription of hfty-six
words in verse, to the effect that it was sent to the Emperor
as a tribute gift from the West- liil .

Xext come cylindrical handles and tabes for the hair-
pencil, plain, with scroll borders, or engraved with
dragons. One is inscribed on the handle “Upright heart
makes upright pencil,” on the tube “ Chlen yell wen fang,
the name of the study of Li To, the last sovereign of the
Sonthern T' any, who was dethroned in 975, so that it
must have originally belonged to him.

Pencil-rests follow, in the forms of hills and natural
rocks. Then water-bottles, little bowls, and water-
droppers ; some of the former of elegant design, like the
dragon- handled vase in Book 71, folio 7, the body of
which is decorated with cloud scrolls, the shoulder and
neck with leaf borders, the foot and rim with pearls ;
others in the form of animals, a goat or duck, a toad or
tortoise, or of plants, like the lotus or musk-melon. Then
letter-weights, foot measures ; and ornaments for the
table, Ju-i f set with rubies and other precious stones,

* Chinese Porcelain before the Present Dynasty. Page 13, By S. W. Bushed,
I, L), Peking Oriental Society, ISSth A wine-pot of Ihimn te (1430-35),
INTo. 40 of this album, of deep-red porcelain, and described as copied from a
jade wine-pot of the Han dynasty used by the Emperor, is exactly similar in
form and design to two of the wine-pots figured in the Ku yit Vou , which are
attributed to the same date.

\ The ju-i is a magic wand often placed in the hands of Taoist divinities.
It seems to have been originally a branch of the woody colored fungus,
Polyporm luc&dus, an emblem of longevity, often met with in Chinese art.

JADE AS A MINERAL.

air

chowry- (fly-brush) handles, body-scratchers of quaint
form and design, and lastly a Buddhist rosary with one
hundred and eight beads.

The urns or censers for burning incense and fragrant
wood, which constitute class 5, are distributed through
five books, and are all modelled on ancient bronze designs.
So are most of the wine- vessels and wine-pots, libation-
cups and drinking-cups figured in the next nine books.
An exception to this general rule is the wine-vessel in
Book 90, folio 5, modelled in the form of a horned dragon
of fierce aspect, with scaly body 1.65 feet long, hollowed
out to hold the wine, which is poured in at the top of the
bead, and flows out when the cap is taken off from the
end of a spout hidden under the tongue. “The. hair and
beard are carved tine as silk, the eyes are constructed so
as to move in hollowed sockets, and the white translucid
jade of the scales made so thin that the red color of the
wine shines through. This rare and valuable present was
sent by the king of Khotan as tribute in the period THen-
sheng (1023-31), and lias been placed among his greatest
treasures by each successive emperor of our dynasty
down to the present.” The sacrificial vessels of class 7
include wine-receptacles of diverse form and tazza-shaped
round dishes for other offerings, also made after antique
bronze designs.

The Musical Instruments of class 8 include what may
be described very closely as guitars, bells, sounding-stones,
mouth harmoniums, pandean pipes and flutes, drums of
different kinds, clappers of five pieces hung on a string,
and stringed instruments of various shapes.

The ninth and last class opens with a short series of
Buddhist and Taoist figures and scenes, engraved on
oblong plates of jade between two and three feet long,

The name is composed of two characters meaning “ as you wish,” and must
he distinguished from jui. a monosyllable meaning tablet or baton, which is
used as a general term to include the Jtuei ami other ancient badges of feudal
rank. A jade jti-i mounted with jewels was included among the presents
sent by the Emperor of China to Queen Victoria in the fiftieth year of her
reign, and one is often sent, to a high mandarin on his sixtieth birthday or
other auspicious occasion.

318

JADE AS A MINERAL.

including a carved image of the god of longevity. A
representation of Amida Biiddlm, seated with staff and
rosary, is engraved within a medallion on the first plate,
dated Pao-la (943-957).

The next, an irregular four-sided plaque of pure white
jade over two feet in height and breadth, lias upon it an
image of Samantabhadra, one of the great saints of the
Tantra school of Buddhists. The figure, seated on a mat,
with a flower-vase on its left and an alms-bowl on the
right, in the midst of rocks enveloped in clouds, is said to
have been miraculously produced, not carved by mortal
band. The empress mother of SM n Tsumg , the fifth ruler
of the Sung dynasty, who was an ardent devotee of this
saint and of the goddess Kuan-yin (Avalokiteshvara),
commissioned one of the chamberlains named Kao K’an
to burn incense to them in the cave Hu Yin Tung. From
this cave, one day in the year 106S, came sounds of
thunder and a torrent of water bringing with it this
sacred image, which Kao K’an carried in all haste to the
empress, who placed it with much ceremony in a shrine
within the palace for her own worship.

Another medallion-picture carved on light green jade of
“Samantabhadra washing the elephant” is inscribed as
drawn after the artist Yen Li-pen of the T'artg dynasty,
by the worker in jade P'eug Tsu-shou, to be presented by
the imperial treasury of K’ a i p' ing (907-910) of the Great
igCang to the Buddhist monastery, Hung Ming-ssu. Kai-
p ing was the title usurped by Chu Wen, a rebel who
flourished in the ninth century at the end of the T'ang ,
till ‘Hie was stabbed by his son. The pictures of the god
of literature and of the ancient emperor of the east with
their attendants are inscribed with the names of the
carvers, one of whom, Wang Yu, has already been
alluded to, belonging to the Imperial Jade Manufactory
of the Sung Emperor.

The former Wen Ch’ang Ti Chun, whose celestial abode
is in the Great Bear, is seated on a mule riding upon the
clouds, with two attendants on foot, one carrying tli eja-i
sceptre, the other a lyre wrapped in silk. Tung Wang

JADE AS A MINERAL.

319

Ivung, the Lord Sovereign of the Bast, one of the most
famous divinities of Taoist legend, was the husband of
Hsi Wang Mu, the Western Royal Mother, the queen of
immortals, who dwells on the K’uiidim Mountains In
a magnificent palace, on the borders of the Lake of Gems,
beside which grows the peach-tree of the genii whose fruit
confers immortality. In the Sung dynasty a mystical
doctrine representing this pair as the first created and
creative results of the powers of nature was elaborated.
Tlie god holding a scroll in his hand is seated here before
a tripod urn preparing the elixir mtm from vermilion,
with two attendants standing near, one bearing the ju-i
sceptre, the other a basket of peaches, Both of these
works of art are dated the second year of the Hsiang-fio
period, corresponding to a. d. 1009.

Then come jade pillows, one of four-sided oblong form two
and a half feet long and nearly a foot across, with scroll
borders made of translucent white jade with a slight tinge
of green, engraved all over Willi dragons and phoenixes in
clouds fine as silk, said to be a relic of tlie palaCe of the
T'ang. Then shoulder-rests for the divan, like small
tables, and boxes carved in openwork for bolding fragrant
flowers or perfumes.

Book 100 contains the largest specimen in the collection,
an oval vase (weng) figured on folio 3, and described as 4.4
feet high, 7,2 feet In circumference at the body, 3.6 at tlie
mouth, of translucid white color, with moss-green marks
and spots of brighter emerald-green. It is engraved with
three-clawed dragons in pursuit of pearls emerging from
sea-waves and surrounded by clouds, which show out tlie
rare green tints of the ground. When filled with wine it
holds about eighty pints. It is described as the largest
known jade vessel and of perfect workmanship, a unique
relic of the Chin or T'cuig dynasties. Among the other
pieces figured here are a large fish-bowl {Jtang), 3.6 feet
high, 6.4 feet round, decorated with fishes and dragons,
square flower-pots, round and foliated saucer-shaped dishes
for holding flowers, a circular deep dish with four legs for
iced melons or sliced fruit in summer, the last illustration

320

JADE AS A MINERAL.

being that of a plain round bowl of beautiful emerald-green
jade without flaw, of simple antique design.

But it is time to turn to the consideration of modern
artistic work in jade. The principal workshops are at
Peking, where, however, only small articles of daily use,
such as snuff-bottles, mouthpieces for pipes, beads for the
mandarin's rosary, rings, and other objects of personal
adornment are turned out in the present day. I persuaded
a Chinese artist to visit some of them and take sketches of
the different processes of work and of the tools employed
in working into shape the rough material, carving and
polishing it to its perfect form. He found much difficulty
at lirst, as the suspicious craftsmen were convinced that he
was only anxious to worm out their secrets for his foreign
friends to improve the tools and gradually supplant their
work. At last, however, he fell in with one more amenable
to reason, invited him to the theatre and to a good dinner
afterwards, at which he made his notes, and arranged for
a tour of the workshops next day. The results of his
visits are embodied in the twelve pictures, which, with my
translation of the descriptions of the artist, Li Cheng- yuan,
follow Mr. Tang’s Discourse on Jade, now to be given.

He calls his article Yu Tso T'ou , “ Illustrations of the
Manufacture of Jade,” and introduces the water-color
illustrations by a short preface accompanied by a table of
contents, which I will translate. The preface occupies the
middle of the page, and must be read in vertical lines,
from right to left. The table of contents is written on the
pink ground on either side. The first two processes: (1)
“Pounding the Sand,” and (2) “Grinding the Sand,” are
combined in the first picture, so that the thirteen in the
list make only twelve illustrations altogether.

YU-SHUO

A DISCOURSE ON .TADE

With Researches on the
History of Jade

T’ang Jung-tso

styled

Hsi-wu

Citizen of Peking

Graduate and Scholar of the Chinese Empire

Translated

Stephen W. Be shell

Mg®

YU SHUO

A DISCOURSE ON JADE

Written by

Ku Yu IIsu ax Ciiu Jen
Dweller in the “Hall of Ancient Rarities”

Sealed

With His Library Seal
“Ku Yu Hsu an Yin”

In the Cyclical Year Iveng Yin of
tlie Emperor Kuang Hsu

TABLE OF CONTENTS

I. Sources of Jade

II. Crude Jade

III. Value of Jade

IV. Objects made of Jade

V. Jade used by the Son of Heaven

VI. Jade used by the State

VII. Colors of Jade

VIII. Ancient Jade

IX. Pei-ts’ui

and

An Appendix containing the Titles of Seventy-one
Books quoted in the Text

322

YtJ SHUO.

I. SOURCES OF JADE.

The magic powers of heaven and earth are ever combin-
ing to form perfect results: so the pure essences of hili
and water become solidified into precious jade. Hence all
the places which produce jade are situated in the midst of
mountains and streams, A short account of these may be
gathered from different books.*

The “Book of Annals 5 ’ (Shu ching), in the Tribute of
Yiif records that the province of Yang Chou sent as tribute
yao and 7c un stones, bamboos small and large, etc. The
Commentary says that yao and 7i un were both precious
jades. Also that the province of Liang-ohou sent as tribute
clt iw, iron, silver, stone for arrowheads, and musical stones.
The Commentary says that c7i in were musical stones of
jade. Also that the province of Yung-chou sent as tribute
chHUt Un, and lang and kan y precious stones. The Com-
mentary says that the clt' hi, and Un were tine jades and
could be used to make the symbols of rank called Tmei and
dicing .

The “ Rites of Chou 55 {Chou Li), in its Geographical Sec-
tion, says that the region due west was called Yung Chou,
and that its commerce was in jade and stones. The “Book
of Rites” (Li CM) says that rocks which contain jade have
a vapor like a white rainbow beside them, its pure essence
becoming visible in the mountains and streams. The Po

* The Tribute of Tu, which forms Part III of the Shu Ohing, is the title of
the First Book of the Ilsia dynasty. It comprises the Division of ihe Empire
of China, with the natural productions and revenue of the different districts as
fixed by the Great Yu f the founder of lids ancient hereditary line. It is
generally considered to be an authentic document of the third millennium
b, e. t and may be called a ' ' Domesday Book of China.” The Commentaries
quoted above are those written during the llati dynasty some two thousand
years ago, (See The Chinese Classics, in 7 vols., translated by James Legge,
D. D, p Professor of Chinese at Oxford University.)

323

324

JADE AS A MINERAL.

lou chih says that the hills on which millet grows produce
jade; Huai Nan Tzu, tliat streams which have round bends
contain pearls, those with angular bends jade. An illus-
trated book on jade mirrors ( Yu clung You) says that when
in the second month the plants growing on the hills have
a light hanging down from them, there is jade ; the spirit
of jade being like a beautiful girl. Another book on jade
( Yu Shu) says that jade has markings on it like dark liills
or like green waves ; that when it occurs in mountains the
trees are luxuriant ; when it is produced in rivers the
water is fertilizing ; and that although hidden in the rock
its mottled colors shine through.

From these various quotations it may be seen that there
are two kinds of jade, the one found on mountains, the
other in rivers. In China jade is generally found in the
hills, while in Kliotan (Yu-tien) it occurs usually in rivers.
The Materia Medica ( Pen TYao), quoting Hung-cliing
(a. d. 452-530), says : “The best jade comes from Lan-t’ien,
also from Nan-yang, and from the Lu-jung river in
.Tih-nan; that brought from the foreign countries of
Kliotan (Yu-tien) and Kashgar (Su-le) is also good. If
translucent and white as hog's lard, and resonant when
struck, it is genuine. The counterfeits have many points
of resemblance and must be carefully distinguished.’’
The 57 icu chih says that jade comes from the K’un-hm
Mountains. The P/eh pao ching, that rocks which contain
jade must be examined with a lighted candle, and when it
shows inside a red light bright as the newly risen sun, it
may be known that there is jade. Sung (Su Sung,
Eleventh century) says: “In the present day neither in
Lan-t’ien, Nan-yang, nor in Jih-uan is there any mention
of jade, and it is found only in the Khotan (Ydi-tien) coun-
try.” During the After Chin dynasty in the reign
T'ien-fu (936-43) the superintendent of the banqueting
court Chang Kuang-yi was sent on a mission to Khotan,
and wrote a diary of his journey, in which he states that
“ The place where jade is obtained in this country is called
Jade River, which runs outside the walled city of Khotan.
Its source is in the K’un Mountains, and it flows 1300 It

J A B E AS A MINK UAL*

325

from the west before it reaches the Ball’s Head Mountain
in K ho tan ? where it divides into three rivers* The first,
called White Jade River, is 30 li to the east of the city ;
tile second, called Green Jade River, 20 li to the west of
the city ; the third, called Black Jade River, being 7 li
west of the Green Jade River * % Although the source is the
same the jade varies according to locality, and is of these
three different colors. Every year in the fifth and sixth
months a swollen torrent of water rushes down and the
jade follows with the current, its quantity depending on
the size of the flood* The water recedes during the seventh
and eighth months, and it can then be collected, the jade
fished for, as the natives say, according to fixed rules made
by the State. For ritual vessels, ornaments, and food
vessels they often use jade, and the jade which we have in
the Central Kingdom (China) also comes from this country/ 5
There are even fields where jade can be cultivated,
according to the Sou slum chi , which relates that u Yung-
po, when his father and mother died, buried them in the
Wn Chung Hills. There was no water on these hills, and
Yung Po founded a station there for the distribution of
tea. A certain man as soon as he had drunk brought out
a pint of stone pebbles, gave them to him. and told him to
plant them, and that they would grown into fine jade. Tt
was afterwards really so/ 5 In the present day even in the
province of Chih-Ii, within the boundaries of Yri-tienJisien,
there are fields where jade is cultivated*

Coming to the mountains which produce jade, these are
not confined to one district. The fcrh-ya in its Geographic

*The account of the rivers of Khotan, as related here, is somewhat con-
fused, and difficult to reconcile with more recent descriptions. The “ Bull’s
Head Mountain” is described in the Annals of the Tang dynasty as having
two very steep-pointed peaks, with a Buddhist monastery containing a cele-
brated statue of Buddha built between them. It is given there the name
Ku-sli-fiMing-ka, the Chinese transcription of the Sanskrit Gavshringa , which
means also Bull’s horns, and stated to be situated 20 li southwest of the royal
city of Khotan* The large river which now runs 50 li west of the modern
city is known as Kara k ash or Black Jade River* The Yuningkash or White
Jade River, which runs northward, to join the other, passes 5 li east of
the city. Both these rivers rise independently to south of the K’im-lun range,
which they pierce.

326

JADE AS A MINERAL.

cal Section says: “ The finest productions of tlie Eastern
country are the hsun , ytt, and cJt i of the Yi-wu-ln Moun-
tain ” — Yi-wu-lu, according to the Commentary, being a
mountain in the modern Liao-tung, hsu, yu , and cJt i dif-
ferent Icinds of jade. Again: “The finest productions of
the western countries are the many jewels and jade of Ho
Shan” — Ho Shan, according to the Commentary, being in
the modern P’ing-yangat Yung-an hsien. Again: “ 'Die
finest productions of the Northwest are the ch’iu, lin, lang,
and lean of K’un-lun Hsii” — ClCiu and lin, according to the
Commentary, being the names of fine jades, — lang, Jean, in
shape like pearls ; K’un-lim the name of a mountain, Hsu
meaning its base.

Some other historical jades, like that found at Lantien
of the Chon, at Ho-skih of the Ch*u State, at Chieli-lu of
the Snug State, and at Ch’ui-chi of the Chin State, were all
the highly prized treasures of the different States.* Jade
was produced in other places, but none to rival these.

Besides these there are the jade stones of Yarkand
(Yeh’rh kiang), an account of which is extracted from the
Hsi Til Wcn-chien-ht : “ Yarkand is a large walled city
of the Mohammedan country. In its territory there is a
river in which are found jade stones, the largest as big as
round dishes or square peck-measures, the smallest the
size of a fist or chestnut, some weighing as much as three
or four hundred catties. There are many different colors,
among which snow-white, kingfisher- feather green, bees-
wax yellow, vermilion-red, and ink-black are all con-
sidered valuable; but the most difficult of all to get are
pieces like mutton-fat with red spots, and others bright
green as spinach with gold stars shining through, and
these last two kinds are considered the rarest and most
precious. Along the liver-bed extends a deep layer of

* Tlie period referred to here Is that of the Chou dynasty. The sovereigns
of the Chou, with their capital at Loy&ng, ruled over the Royal Domain or
Central Kingdom, as suzerains of the surrounding feudal states, till their over-
throw by the founder of the Ch'in dynasty in u. c. 255, The states mentioned
above are the Chhi on the southwest, the modern SsiVch’uan, tlie Sung on the
east ruled by the descendants of the Sftctng dynasty which preceded the Chou P
and the Chin of the north.

JADE AS A MINERAL.

327

stones both large and small, the jade pebbles being mixed
with the rest. When the time comes lor collecting them
an official takes up his station some distance from the
bank, and a military officer is posted close to the river.
Native Mohammedans who understand the work having
been levied, they walk in rows of thirty or twenty, shoul-
der to shoulder, stretching across the river* with bare feet,
over the stones. When they come to a jade stone the
Mohammedan knows it by the touch of his foot, and
stoops clown to pick it up. The soldier on the bank makes
a stroke on his gong, the official then makes a red mark on
his list, and when the natives come out of the water he
requires of them as many pieces of jade as he has made
marks.”

“ At a distance of 230 li from Yarkand there is a moun-
tain called Mirtai Tapan,* where the whole side of the hill
is of jade of all the different colors. But the stone is so
mixed with jade, and the jade so veined with stone, that to
get a quantity of blocks of pure jade, without flaws, weigh-
ing from 1000 to 10*000 catties, one must go to the top of
the highest precipices, which are inaccessible to men
alone. There are, however, yaks bred in this country
which are trained to climb, and the Mohammedans, taking
their tools with them, ride upon these yaks. They then
scale the precipice, dig out the pieces with the chisel, and
let them fall clown to be collected afterward. These are
commonly known as ‘stone pieces,’ also called ‘hill
stones.’ Twice every year, in spring and autumn, Yar-
kand sends as tribute from between 7000 and 8000 up to
10,000 catties of jade.”

“Still farther south, 700 li distant, is the Mohammedan
walled city of Ivhotan (Ho-tien), situated in the midst of a
fertile plain, 1000 li broad, the whole of which produces
jade pebbles even in greater abundance than in Yarkand.”

In tlie present day Hsi-an-fu, in the province of Shensi,
Knei-lin-fn in Kuangsi, Hsti-clion in Honan, as well as tlie

* Tapan is the Chinese transcript of the Mancliu DiiMn, lc mountain/ 3 The
Mirtai Mountains are tlie same as tlie Be1urt% being the part of tlie great
ICun-hin range to the southwest of Yttrkand,

328

JADE AS A MINERAL.

districts of So-chii-hsien * and Ho-tien-hsien in the New
Dominion, all these places produce jade,

There is a dark green jade (Pi yu ) t commonly called
Yunnan jade, but there is no mention of the production of
jade in this province ; this kind of jade really comes from
Burma (Mien-tien). The dealers in jade coming hither to
and from China must all cross this province, and from this
circumstance the name of Yunnan lias been given to dis-
tinguish this peculiar kind of jade.

II. CRUDE JADE.

By crude jade is meant un wrought jade. It has been
collected, but not yet carved. From its own natural quali-
ties and its peculiar solidity and pure color, with no addi-
tion of carved ornament, it is considered a thing of rare
value.

The Book of Annals (Shu), in the Testamentary Charge
(of King Ch’eng), says that the great jade, the Ti jade, the
cserulean jade, and the river plan, were all spread out in the
eastern chamber. The Commentary adds that the great
jade came from Hua-Shan, the Ti jade from the north-
east, and the caern lean jade as tribute from Yimg-chou, its
color being like that of the sky. These three must all
have been of crude jade and uncarved, because there is no
mention of utensils.

The Fw jui Vow says; “Jade sprouts are rare and
precious; not worked, but growing spontaneously, they
shine like white dowers. In the reign of Wen- Ti of the
Han dynasty, jade sprouts were seen in Wei-yang. It is
said that these jade sprouts are seen when the live virtues
are cultivated.” According to the dictionary Ywi-hui all

*Sq-cM t anciently pronounced Sa-ktl, is the old name of Yarkand ; Ho-licu
i s a modern Chinese transcript ion of Khotnn. These are two of the principal
districts of Chinese Turkistan, or Ilsin Chiang, the " New Dominion ,p as it is
called also by the Chinese, since its conquest by the emperor Oldie n Lung In
the middle of the last century.

f Pi y it is a general term applied to all kinds of dark green jade varying in
tint from sage and olive-green to the colors of moss and spinach, down lo an
almost black opacity.

JADE AS A MINERAL.

329

jade grows, and while being formed there are sprouts, stem,
flowers, and fruit, just as in growing plants. The jade
sprout is when it is first growing, like the first shoot of a
plant ; the stem the finest kind of jade, like the best*-
grown centre of the plant ; the jade flower, when full-
grown, like the flower of the plant ; and the jade
fruit, when its formation is completed, as in vegetable
fruit. All these jades can be used. According to the
Hsiang yu shu , jade six inches in diameter, which spon-
taneously emits light, is called clreng. The Tao-te-cMng
says that jade must be broken up to make vessels.

Han Fei Tzu (third century tl c.) relates of Pien Ho, a
native of the Ch’u State, that he found a piece of crude jade
in the Cli’u mountains and offered it to Prince Li. The
prince sent a man to examine it, who declared it to be com-
mon stone, whereupon the prince, thinking it a fraud, cut
off Ids right foot. After Prince Wu had succeeded, Pien
Ho again presented it. It was again examined and
reported to be stone, and they cut off his left foot. Prince
Wen succeeded in his turn, and Pien IIo, holding the
jade in Ids hand, lay at the foot of the Cldu mountains,
weeping for three days and nights, till the tears were
changed to blood. The prince sent his workers in jade to
carve the rough stone, and got a priceless vessel. Thus it
may be seen that the linest jade comes from this rough
stone, and those who can distinguish the latter are real
connoisseurs of jade.

This crude jade is also a substance of special efficacy as
a medicine ; it adds nervous energy and cures certain dis-
eases. Hung-ching'* says in the Pen-Tsao that jade
powder is prepared by pulverizing jade, and that it is not a
distinct substance. The listen Citing says that when jade
is prescribed it must be pounded to the size of rice-grains,
and then suspended in bitter spirit to the consistence of
mud. Some dilute it till like rice-water. When jade is
ordered by the physician, carved vessels must not be used,
nor un wrought jade that has been buried in graves. Kung

*T’ao Hmig-cliing, who flourished a. m 45S-586, was one of the most cele-
brated adepts in the mysteries of Taoism.

330

JADE AS A MINERAL,

says that when jade is taken it is best to reduce it to a
liquid form. When roughly powdered to the size of
small pulse, the essential part is dissolved in the intes-
tines, the solid fragments passing away unchanged. It is
also prescribed in tine powder in certain cases of constric-
tion from stone and tumors, but the plan of pounding it to
the size of small pulse is of most real value. In its phar-
maceutical properties it is sweet, neutral, and not poison-
ous. It removes heat in the stomach, cures asthma and
hot obstructions, and relieves thirst. When pounded to
the size of small pulse and taken for a long time, it
lightens the body and lengthens life, moistens the heart
and lungs, helps the voice and throat, makes the hair
gloss}', and also aids to nourish the five abdominal organs.
It is compatible with gold, silver, and the herb Mai-men-
tung, and is still more efficacious when boiled with these
and given in combination. Other preparations of jade, like
jade-water, jade-tea, and fine jade-tea, are all prepared
from un wrought jade dissolved into fluid form in different
ways. These various prescriptions are all contained in the
Materia Medica books, in which the prescriptions are
always taken from un worked jade. So highly is the best
crude or rough jade valued. The same material when
carved into vessels is not to be compared with. it.

III. VALUE OF JADE.

Jade is a substance hard and strong, yet of liquid
aspect; it is fine-grained, and beautifully marked, and yet
brilliant It is the choicest material found in the two
kingdoms of nature, and quite unrivalled in value among
the myriad substances.

The Book of Poetry (Skill Oiling), in the Minor Odes of
the Kingdom, says : “ The stones of those hills can be used
to polish jade. Oh’ eng Tzu, in liis Commentary, explains
that though jade is of warm, moist aspect, and the finest
production of the world, while stone is rough and coarse,
and the worst of things, yet it is impossible to make
vessels by rubbing together two pieces of jade, although

JADE AS A MINERAL.

381

when polished with stone jade may be worked and made
into vessels. The Mites of Chou says that a cubic inch of
jade weighs seven ounces (Hang), a cubic inch of common
stone six ounces. In the Book of Mites Tzu Kung asked
Confucius: u May I venture to ask why it is that the
model man values jade and despises steatite ? Is it
because jade is rare and steatite common?” Confucius
replied : <( The model man of old compared jade to virtue.
It is of warm, liquid, and moist aspect, like benevolence ;
it is solid, strong, and firm, like wisdom ; pure, and not
easily injured, like righteousness; when suspended, it
hangs gracefully, like politeness ; when struck, it gives
out a pure, far-reaching sound, vibrating long but stop-
ping abruptly, like music; though faulty, it does not
hide its good points, when superior it does not conceal its
defects, like loyalty; its brilliancy lights up things near
it, like truth ; it gives out a bright rainbow, like heaven;
shows a pure spirit among the lulls and streams, like earth ;
symbols of jade rank alone as gifts to introduce persons,
like virtue; and in t lie whole world there is no one that
does not value it, like reason. The Odes {Shih Citing) say :
* When I think of my lord, He is soft-looking, like jade. 5
That is why the model man values it so highly.”

According to the dictionary T ¥ki-yin-c7ifyu% when
placed in a strong fire and it does not become hot, it is true
jade. According to the Shuo-wen, the jo bra and yu were
precious jades of the Lu State. Confucius says : “How

beautiful are the fan and yw % when looked at from afar
so brilliant, when closely inspected so finely marked, ex-
celling both in material and in brilliance of surface.”
According to the Pat Kuan , fire jade is red in color, and
can heat a copper cauldron ; warm jade will counteract
cold, cold jade will remove heat ; fragrant jade has a sweet
smell ; soft jade is of soft material ; sun jade reflects a vis-
ible picture of the palaces of the sun ; these being all pre-
cious things of rare occurrence. The Life of Wang Mnng
in the Annals of the Former Han dynasty says that fine
jade will remove scars. The Miscellanies of the West
Capital (of the Han) relates that there were in the Hsien-

832

JADE AS A MINED A I..

Yang Palace five lamps of green jade, seven and a half feet
high, carved in the form of lizards, holding the lamps in
their mouths, and that when the lamps were lighted their
scales all moved and the bright light filled the hall. The
Tu Yang-tsa-pien records that during the T'ang dynasty
the Kingdom of Japan presented to the Emperor an en-
graved gobang board of warm jade, on which the game
could be played in winter without getting cold, and that it
was most highly prized. Also that the Emperor Tai- Tsung
of the T'ang, went one day to the Using Ch’ing Palace and
found there in the double wall a precious casket containing a
jade mace with the characters “ soft jade mace ” inscribed
on the end. This had been offered in the period T'ien-pao
(a. d. 742-755) by a foreign state. It could be bent until
the two ends met, and straightened out again as rigid and
firm as a stretched cord. Neither fire nor strokes of an
axe hurt it. The sovereign, delighted with it as a magic
thing, ordered an embroidered case of fine silk to be made
for it, and a scabbard of green jade. Again, that 30,000
li east of Japan* is the island of Chi-mo, and upon this
island the Ning-hsia Terrace, on which terrace is the go -
bang player’s lake. This lake produces the chess-men
which need no carving, and are naturally divided into
black and white. They are warm in winter, cool in
summer, and known as cool and warm jade. It also pro-
duces the catalpa-jade, in structure like tlie wood of the
catalpa-tree, which is carved into chess-boards shining and
brilliant as mirrors. Again, that in the reign Shun Tsung
(a. d. S05) an embassy from the west presented two
pieces of jade, one round, the other square, both half a
foot in diameter, of brilliant surface reflecting like a
mirror. Yi-ch’i Ynan-chieh, who was seated at the time
before the Emperor, after carefully examining them, said :
“ One is dragon jade, the other tiger jade. The round

* The book quoted here is by an author who is fond of the marvellous, and,
as Mr* Wylie in hi? JVotes on OhineM Literature (p. 155) says, many of Ins-
statements have the appearance of being apocryphal. so that we must not con-
clude from this passage that the Chinese at this time were in communication
with America.

JADE AS A MINERAL.

333

piece is the dragon, produced in water, and highly prized
by the dragon, and if it be thrown into water it will emit
rainbow colors. The square piece is the tiger, produced in
precipitous mountain valleys, and highly prized by the
tiger, and if it be rubbed with tiger fur, purple rays will
proceed from it, and all animals will cower trembling. 75
The Emperor praised his words. The Additional Records
of the T" ien-pao period say that Yaug-Kuei-Fei kept jade
in her mouth and sucked it to relieve lung thirst. In the
Yu-yang-tsa-tsu it is related that the chamberlain Ma
prized highly a bowl of pure jade, far excelling common
jade, because even in the heat of the summer Hies would
not enter it, and because when filled with water the water
was neither spoiled nor diminished even after a month, and
also because the application of the contents of this bowl to
i inflamed eyes immediately cured them. The Yi-cMen -
chili says that in the reign of 1/ snail Tsung (a. ik 847-859),
of the Yang dynasty, the emperor had twelve chess-men,
on which were inscribed the cycle of the twelve hours,
and that when a bowl was filled with water and these men
put in, as the hour came round the proper one floated to
the top without making an error of a moment.

But all these tilings, although deemed precious, and of
great rarity, are fit only to be regarded as toys and are
of no real intrinsic value. It is different with the case re*
corded in the Shih-cM of the Ho-shih-pi of the Clrii
State, which was taken by Hid Wen Wang of the Chao,
and for which Chao Wang of the Chhin offered in exchange
fifteen walled cities. The Tso Chuan says that when the
Marquis of Wei was taken prisoner by the Chin State and
sent to the capital, the king sent his physician Yen to
poison the Marquis of Wei, but Xing Yu, an officer of the
Wei, bribed the physician to dilute the poison so that lie did
not die, after which the Duke of Lu sent for his ransom a
quantity of jade including ten chuo to the king and ten
chuo to the Marquis of Chin, whereupon the king con-
sented and released the Marquis of Wei, The commentary
explains chuo to mean two pieces of jade. Again, when
the Marquis of Chin attacked the Clri State and was about

334

JADE AS A MINERAL.

lli

to cross the river, his officer, Hsien Tzu, tied together two
chuo (pairs) of jade with red silk, and worshipped, throw-
ing the jade into the water, after which they crossed over.
These are instances of life and deatli to prince and state,
and not to be compared with the fancy of a man fond of
jade and thinking each piece of peculiar value.

We have also accounts of productions of human ingen-
uity seeking to rival the powers of nature, as in the Haoi-
Wu-Ku-sltlh, which related how the emperor built a sacred
temple and in the front hall erected trees of jade, with
branches made of red coral, leaves of green jade, flowers
and seeds blue and red made of precious stones hollowed
out in the middle like little bells, tinkling as they hung,*
Such tilings dazzle the eyes and please the fancy, but are
of no other value.

Coming to the employment of jade as food, it is also
valued by some for this purpose. The Ho - 1 ' ou-y u -p an says
that on the Sliao-shih Mountains there is found a white jade-
oil which, when eaten, confers immortality. The Shift chon
chi says that at Ying-chott is found a jade-oil like spirit,
which is called jade-wine, and which, when some cups of
it are drunk, intoxicates and gives to men long life. Pao
Fu-tzA says that the mountains which produce jade have
springs of jade-oil, which flows out clear and brilliant as
rock-crystal, and which, when stirred with any hollow
stem, instantly turns to water ; and that one cup of this
when drunk will give a thousand years. Tsang CUT says
in the Pen Ts'ao that the water which comes from jnde,
when drunk, will confer long life and a youthful aspect.
That jade so eaten should confer immortality is a test
of its high value such as could hardly be surpassed !

* A pair of little trees of this kind is often presented ns part of the trousseau
of a rich Chinese bride of the present day, standing in flower- pots of jade,
cloisonne enamel, or rare porcelain, filled with coarsely powdered lapis
lazuli, or coral, instead of earth. Covered with glass shades, they make a
brave show in the procession of wedding-gifts which is always carried through
the streets of a Chinese city.

JADE AS A MINERAL* 335

IV* OBJECTS MADE OF JADE,

Tiie Book of Rites ( Li Chi) says : 41 If jade be not carved
the vessel cannot be made.” Mencius says, u Now you
have a piece of rough jade, and even if of the value of ten
■thousand pieces of silver, yet you will entrust it to the jade
men to be carved.” Therefore the employment of jade to
make vessels is not a work of modern times. The Annals
(S/m Chinff) tell us that lie (Shim) established the sphere
arid the jade transverse to regulate the seven planets.
Again, in the Metal-bound Coffer that the Duke of Chou
stood erect, having placed tli epi (on the altar) and holding
the kuei in his hand. Again, in the Testamentary Charge
that after his (King ONing's) attendants had put on his
crown and robes, he leaned on the jade table.

The Book of Poetry (Shih Ching) in the State Odes says:
” She grows old with her lord, wearing six jade pins in her
hair” ; the Commentary explaining it to mean six pins
ornamented with jade. Again, u He presented to me a
quince, I returned a chic of line jade. He presented to me
a peach, I returned a yao of line jade. He presented to me
a plum, I returned a cK in of fine jade.” The Commentary
explains that these tilings were all of the finest jade, the
chu being girdle appendages, the yao and clC iu worn also
as ornaments. Again : 4 4 With woollen robes like red
jade,” //ic/i, according, to the Commentary, being the red
c ol or of j ade , A ga in: u When I kjdo w 1 1 1 a t y o u ar e c o ming r
I will present you with all the jade ornaments,” meaning,
says the Commentary, the jade set worn on the left and
right sides. Again, in the Lesser Odes :* 44 They (boys)
will have jade sceptres to play with,”

* The Lesser Odes form a section of the Shih chinff. Our author is too con-
cise, but lie expects his readers to have the Bsok of Poetry on the tip of their
tongue, so that one lino is suggestive enough. This one is part of two verses
often quoted to contrast the lot of hoys and girts in China. Speaking of King
Ilsihtn they run, according to Dr. Legge’s translation : ** Sons shall be born to
him ; They will be put to steep on couches. They will be clothed in silk
robes. T h ey will h a ve ja J e see p t res to pi ay with.” "Dan gl i ters si i a 31 be bo m
to him ; They will be put to sleep on the ground ; They will be clothed in
wrappers ; They will have earthen tiles to play with,”

336

JADE AS A MINERAL.

In the Rites of Chon (Chou Li), the First Minister, when
there is a great court reception of the nobles, aids the
Sovereign with the jade presents, the jade offerings, the
jade tables, and the jade libation-vessels. Again, the Chief
of the Jade Treasury, when the nobles are summoned for a
sworn convention, prepares the jewelled vessel and the jade
dish (for blood). Again, the Minister of Rites, when there
is a great sacrificial worship, laves the jade wine-vessels
and hands the jade dishes ; the Commentary explaining
ch'ang as vessels Cor wine, tzu , dishes for holding millet.
Again, under the Minister of Punishment, the lesser envoy
regulates the six symbols (jui) of rank, the symbol of
domination (oMn kuei) peculiar to the emperor, the pillar
symbol (kuan kuei ) held by princes of the first rank,
the symbol of sincerity ($hen kuei) by princes of the second
rank, and the symbol ( kung kuei) by princes of the third
rank, the grain symbol (ku pi) by princes of the fourth
rank, the reed symbol (p'upi) by princes of the fifth rank.
He arranges the six precious offerings (pi ) : horses with the
kuei symbols, furs with the chang, plain silks with the pi,
brocaded silks with the tsung, silks embroidered in colors
with the hn, silks embroidered in black and white with the
huang. These six offerings were used as presents for the
cultivation of good relations with the feudatory princes.

In the “Book of Rites” (Li CM), in the royal cere-
monial hall, jade cups and large vessels were used for wine,
jade tazzas and carved bamboo dishes for the food, and
jade cups for libation. This book mentions also the four
lien and the six hu of the sovereigns of the Hsia dynasty,
described in the Commentary as jade vessels for holding
millet and grain in the Ancestral Temples.

The Tso Qhuan, in the seventeenth year (b. c. 524) of
Duke Chou, records a speech of the P'i Tsao of Cheng : “ If
we use wine-vessels of jade and jade libation-cups, Cheng
will escape the lire.” Again, in the twenty-ninth year of
Duke Chao (n. c. 512), the Duke presented to Kung Yen
a robe of lainbsldn, and sent him to offer a lungfu to the
Marquis of Clri. lie also offered the lambskin robe, at
which the marquis was pleased, and gave him Yang-ku.

JADE A3 A MINERAL.

337

The Commentary says that lung fu was the name of a
piece of jade, Yang-ku a walled city of the Ch’i. The Hrh-
ya, an ancient dictionary, in its section on apparatus, says
that the horn bows of the time, ornamented at both ends
with jade, were called kuei. Again, that kuei one foot
and two-tenths long were called chi eh; chang eight-tenths
of a foot long were called shu ; pi six-tenths of a foot
across were called hsuan. When the body (in circular
pieces) was twice as large as the central hole, it was called
pi ; when the hole was twice as large as the body, yuan ;
when the hole and body were alike, huan.

The Miscellanies of the Western Capital of the Han
dynasty (Hsi-ching-tsa-chi) says that in the Cli’in country,
at Hsien-yang, they had a jade flute over two feet long
pierced with twenty-six holes. When the Emperor Kao
Tsu first went to Hsien-yang, and went round the treasuries
there, he saw this, and played on it, whereupon mountains
and groves with horses and chariots continued to appear
in a mist, vanishing altogether when he ceased playing.
He gave it the name of the “ tube of beautiful visions.”

In the “Han Annals” {Han Shu), in the life of Wen 77,
the emperor, in the ninth month of liis sixteenth year
(n. c. 164), is recorded to have acquired a jade cup on
which were engraved four characters signifying “Long
life to the sovereign of men ! ” Again, in the Life of
Wu 77, the emperor built the Teng-kuang Tower, and
from the top of the tower resounded the bell made of
bright-green jade.* Again, that the emperor, when his
work was finished and rule established, announced the
completion to Heaven, and engraved a record on stone
tablets, with headings of jade painted with gold characters.
Again, that the Wei-yang Palace had gates of jade.

* A jade handbell with tinkling tongue of jade is sometimes used to
accompany the Buddhist priest when intoning his Sanskrit prayer. The
handle is carved in the form of Buddha and the outside of the bell ornamented
with Buddhist scenes and figures. The Tibetans and Mongols value these
bells very highly. I tried to purchase a beautifully carved one for tbe
Bishop Collection at the New Year's Fair at Peking in 1889 t but a Mongol
prince outbid me by an offer of twenty horses out of the drove he had brought
down from his own country. S. W. B,

388

JADE AS A MINERAL.

In the San-fu-huang Vo% Tung Yen Is described as
lying in Yang-clT ing hall on a couch made of variegated
stone, with dishes before him of purple jade carved with
coiling dragons, all inlaid with different kinds of precious
stones ; and lie Is also said to have had a round dish made
of jade crystal tilled with ice standing before him. The
jade crystal and the ice were so exactly alike that an
attendant one day, exclaiming that the Ice, having no dish,
would melt and wet the mat, threw It away, letting the
dish drop, so that both ice and dish were shattered
together. Tills jade crystal had been sent as tribute from
the Khotan State, and the emperor Wu Ti had given it to
Tung Yen,

In the Annals of the Wei Dynasty the emperor Wen Ti
is said to have had a sword, the head mounted with a
brilliant pearl, the hilt inlaid with blue jade, which lie
often handed to his attendants to destroy goblins.

In the Biography of Hu Tsung we read that during the
Wn dynasty, when digging the ground, there was found a
bronze casket, with the cover made of glass, and a second
lid of mother-of-p#rl, which was opened, and a white jade
sceptre (Ju-i) found inside. The sovereign questioned
Tsung, who replied that Cli'in STiihdmang, on account of
the existence of the spirit of the Son of Heaven in Chin-
ling (Hanking), had buried precious tilings there in several
places to keep down the sovereign spirit.

The Yi Yuan says that, under the Chin dynasty, Wang
T'eng, when he was governor of Yeh, was travelling to the
Ch’aug Shan, when there was a great fall of snow, covering
the ground to a depth of several feet. Before the door of
his tent, over a square space some ten feet broad, the
snow all melted as it fell, whereupon he dug there, and
Found a jade horse more than a foot high. Also, that
Yang Tzu-yang, when at Hung-nung, hearing a sound
proceeding from the ground, dug there, and discovered
a jade pig over a foot long. In the records of Liang- chon
it is written that, in the second year of Hsien-nvng
( a . i >. 270), a robber plundered the grave of Chang Chun,
and found there a wine- vessel of white jade, a jade musical

JADE AS A MINERAL,

339

pipe, and a jade flute. The Shih-yi-cki says that, in the
first year of Tai Skill (a, d. 265) of the Chin dynasty,
natives of the Pin-ssii country came to court with clothes
made of jade of different colors, like the armor of the time.
Also, that the country of Po-te sent to the emperor a ring
made of black jade, like lac in color. Again, that Wang
Yen, during the Chin, made the handle of li is fiy-brush
(chowry) of jade. Again, that the Yin Cldin State,
situated to the north of Turkistan {Hsi-yh), sent to the
emperor, in the reign of Wu T i of the Wiin^ a thousand
strings of jade money, carved into rings, each ring weigh-
ing ten ounces {limuf), with four characters engraved on it

u Celestial longevity, everlasting prosperity

i v

The 4 * Southern History 1 ’ ( Nan Skill) records that, din-
ing the Liang dynasty, in the sixth year of T'ien-ckien
(a. d. 507), the Khotan State sent envoys with offerings of
the productions of their country, and that in the seventh
year of Ta T'ung (a. d. 533) they again offered a jade
Buddha carved in their country. According to the Rules
of the Six Boards in the Thing dynasty, in the worship of
the gods of heaven and earth they used musical plaques
of stone in the ancestral temple, and in the imperial palace
they used musical plaques of jade. The Thing lit story
records that the Emperor Kao- Tsung, in the first year of
the period Ckl ien-feng (a. i>. 666), when he worshipped
Tai Shan, had jade writings made on tablets carved out of
jade, with gold characters incised, which were enclosed in
a jade casket. The Tuajang-tsagnen says that Thing
Yumi-tsai had a fly-brush (chowry) made of red dragon’s
beard, with a ring carved out of red jade on the handle.

The u Sung History ” (Sung Shu) records that, in the
third year of the T' i crashing period (a. d. 1025), the
Khotan (Yu-tien) State sent envoys to the imperial court
with tribute of a jade saddle and harness and a girdle of
white jade. The Hsii-whi-lisien-V might ao says that dur-
ing rhe Yuan dynasty the C o m m a n d er-i n-C 1 lie f Po Yen,*

* Po-yen is the Chinese form of the Mongolian Bay an, the celebrated
military commander who conquered China for Kublni Khan. lie died m the
year 1294.

340

JADE AS A MINERAL,

when he went to the K ho tan country, while digging a
well, discovered a jade Buddha between three and four
feet high, of the color of freshly cut lard, which showed
in a bright light all the sinews, bones, and blood-vessels,
which he immediately sent to the emperor* There was
also a block of white jade six feet high, five feet broad,
and seventeen paces long, but this could not be transported
on account of its weight. The Chin History (Ohm Shill)
records that, in the twenty-sixth year of the Ta-ting period
(a. d. 1186 ), a great-grandson was born to the emperor,
and that there was a banquet in the Ch'ing-bo Palace, at
which the emperor gave him a set of mountains carved in
jade with hares and tassels, while Chang Tsung (the heir-
apparent) offered to the emperor a paper-weight of jade
carved in the likeness of two camels, a jade instrument for
playing the guitar, a phoenix hair-pin, and floral orna-
ments of jade.

As we come down to the present day we find larger things
(carved out of jade), like flower-vases, dishes, large bowls,
and cauldrons, as well as smaller objects, like girdle-
ornaments, hairpins, and rings. For the banquet-table we
have bowls, cups, and wine-vessels of varied form ; for con-
gratulatory gifts, round money and oblong talismans.
There are beakers and vases to be frequently replenished
at wine-parties, wine-pots, and the three cups used at the
wedding ceremony. There is the Buddha of longevity to
pray to for life long as the southern hills, and the screen
carved with the eight Taoist immortals. There are ju-i
sceptres and mirror-stands as valuable betrothal presents:
hairpins, earrings, ornaments for the forehead, and brace-
lets as prized jewelry for personal adornment. For the
scholar’s study there are the set of vessels for burning the
incense of a hundred ingredients, the tripod, vase, and
box ; for more luxurious halls are flowers in pots, each pair
filled with flowers appropriate to the season. There are
combs of jade for dressing the hair and arranging the black
tresses in the early morning ; pillows of jade for laying
across the couch to snatch a dream of elegance at noon.
There are rests for the wrist when the ink-pallet is being

JADE AS A MINERAL.

used ; weights for the tongue of the dead arranged for the
funeral. There are rouge-pots and powder boxes to give
to the face of beauty tiie bloom of the peach ; brush-
receptacles and ink-rests to hold the weapons of the
scholar before his window. There are the eight precious
emblems of good-fortune for Buddhist temples ; the wheel
of the law, conch-shell, umbrella, canopy, lotus-iiower,
jar, pair of fish, and the endless knot; there are pome-
granates bursting open, sacred peaches, and Buddha’s-
lrand citrons — emblems of the all-prayed-for three abun-
dances.* There are jade chains of round links, tokens of
lasting friendship; jade seals for guaranteeing the authen-
ticity of documents. There are beads for the rosary, to
count the number of invocations of Buddha ; paper-weights
for the table of the scholar’s study; tassel -ornaments for
the fan-screen to shield the face of the coquette; jade key-
less locks for fastening around the necks of children.
Jade is used to carve a bracelet for the arm of the infant
to give it something to suck; jade is also used to be
interred with the body of the dead in the hope of preserv-
ing it from decay. Among other things are mortars and
pestles for pounding drugs, and thumb-rings for protecting
the hand of the archer. Lovers of tobacco-smoke prefer a
mouthpiece of jade for their pipes, and gourmands like to
use jade chopsticks. Jade rings are worn on the linger,
to save from shipwreck in the pursuit of wine and pleasure ;
jade pipes used for inhaling clouds of smoke by those
addicted to the opium of the west. In short, from the
Son of Heaven down to the commoner, in adult, marriage,
funeral, and ancestral ceremonies, for daily wear or when
food is served, there is no one who does not on many
occasions make use of jade.

* An abundance of sons, of years, find of happiness. The ripe fruit of the
pomegranate, cracked open so as to expose the seeds inside, is an emblem of
an abundant progeny ; the miraculous peach is the fruit of the god of
longevity ; the BuddUa'sdumd citron, the attribute of the god of happiness.

■ 1342

JADE AS A MINERAL.

V. JADE USED BY THE SON OF HEAVEN.

The scholars of ancient times compared jade to virtue,
because dirt could not soil it nor friction injure it. It is
moist-looking, yet translucid ; of warm aspect, yet hard.
Hence, from the three ancient dynasties to the present day
all the principal sacrificial vessels of the ancestral temple,
as well as the most valuable objects in the imperial palace,
have generally been fashioned of fine jade, so that it is
necessary here to describe its use by the Son of Heaven,

The “Book of Poetry” {SM7i Ching), in the Odes of
Wei, says: “With his ear-ornaments of beautiful jade.”
The Commentator says that these ear- ornaments when
made of jade were called Men, and that those worn by the
Son of Heaven were made of jade. Again, in the Minor
Odes of the Kingdom : kt His scabbard studded above and
below with gems,” The Commentary says that pi was the
scabbard, which was studded above with p' eng, below with
pt\ when worn by the Son of Heaven with Ins coat of mail :
and that the p'mg was made of jade, and the pi of mother-
of-pearl. Again, in the Greater Odes of the Kingdom :
“On his right and left they held the libation-cups.” The
Commentary explains that the half-kuei was called cluing,
and says that during sacrificial worship the king poured
the wine from a kuei-handled cup, the nobles in attendance
offering a second libation from chang-handled cups, which
were held by them on the right and left. And again :
“He received the large and small sceptres (cle m}T’ The
Commentator Cheng explains that the small sceptre was
the often leitei , which was one foot and two-tenths long ;
the large sceptre, the large level, three feet long ; and that
both belonged exclusively to the emperor.

The “Book of History” (81m Clung), in the Ta GIT Mil,
says that Too , when he resigned the empire to Shun, gave
to him the Tiao-hua jade. Again, in the “Canon of
Shun,” that he called in the live jade symbols of rank,
and on the same day of the next month gave audience to
the Chief of the Four Mountains and all the Pastors,
returning the symbols to the several princes. The Com-

JADE AS A JUNE HAL*

343

raentary explains these five symbols, jui, to be the jade
symbols of the five grades of princes, the kung^ hon, po,
tzu,, and nan, being the jade sceptres appertaining to each
grade.

According to the Rites of the Chou dynasty {Chou Li),
t lie Son of Heaven kept the mao , which was four inches
long, for the reception of the several princes. The
Commentator Cheng says that this mao was of jade, and
that the jade was called mao to signify that the Son of
Heaven enveloped the world with his virtue as with a
canopy. When the nobles first received investment the
emperor bestowed on them the kuei tablets. The angles
and tops of these kuei, and the carved under surface of the
mao\ were made of corresponding size, length, and breadth,
so that when the princes came to court, the Son of Heaven
placed the carved surface on the top of the tablet, and if it
did not fit it was proved not to be genuine. Therefore
these symbols of rank were called,/?*/. Again, it describes
the Decorator of Chariots as taking charge of the five
chariots of the king, of which the first was called the jade
chariot. Again, it says that the king held the great tablet,
and kept the tablet of domination ; the Commentary
explaining that the great tablet, three feet long, was held
by the Son of Heaven, and that the tablet of domination,
one foot and two-tenths long, was the one that used to be
sent with the betrothal presents of the Son of Heaven.

The K y ai sJian t'ou says that when Yii Wang received
the command to remove the inundating waters, Yunn-yi
Tsang-shui gave up to him the black tablet of jade, on
which were inscribed characters from which lie knew the
high and low places of the nine provinces, and was enabled
to dig channels and lead off the waters ; and that when
his work was finished he buried the black tablet on a
celebrated mountain, the two characters being in an
antique script, mysterious and most ancient, and quite
unintelligible to ordinary scholars.

The u Classic of Rites 3 ’ (Li Chi) says that the Son of
Heaven wore in his girdle white jade with tassels of black
silk. Again, in the section Yii Tsao, that the hat worn

344

JADE AS A MINERAL.

by tiie Son of Heaven had twelve rows of jade. Again, it
says that the Son of Heaven held the sceptre (Ping)
straight and upright in the face of the world, the Com-
mentary adding that this sceptre was called the great
tablet (kuei) / also* that the tablet (hu) of the Son of
Heaven was of fine jade. Again, it says that when the
sovereign summoned the officers, lie used three chief i as
tokens, two tokens to come hurriedly, one token at ordi-
nary speed ; if at the office, they must not tarry to change
slices ; if outside, they must not wait for a chariot. The
Commentator Ch£ng says that these tokens were made of
jade, and that they were warrants to authenticate the
commands of the sovereign. When the sovereign sent
messengers to summon the high officers, he used some-
times two tokens, sometimes one (hence the general name
of the three chieh), the number used being according to
whether the occasion was ordinary or urgent : if urgent,
two tokens to come quickly ; if not urgent, one token to
come at ordinary speed. The u Illustrations of the Three
Rituals M (San Li T*ou) says that tire Son of Heaven had
six tables, the jade table being the first. Also, that the
red shield and the jade axe were the weapons wielded by
the Son of Heaven in temple-worship. The Lu p' u chi
informs us that when the Son of Heaven went to the
audience- hall, and the hundred officers were collected, at
three strokes of the jade mace they marshalled their
ranks. The Life of King Mu (of the Chou dynasty) refers
to the hman-chu among the valuables of the Son of
Heaven, which the Commentator explains to be a kind of
jade.

A Memoir of the State Seals says that when CK in Shih-
huang had united the Six States, lie gained possession of
the jade of Pien Ho, and ordered the workmen to fashion
it into a State seal, four inches square, with a handle
carved in the form of a lizard, and commanded Li Ssu to
write in the insect and fish script eight characters mean-
ing u According to Heaven's decree may rule be everlast-
ing!” which were engraved by the skilled workman Sun
Slum, and it was called the seal of succession to the

JADE AS A MINERAL.

empire. Tzfi Ying brought this seal as an offering to Kao
Tsu , the founder of the dynasty. Wang Maug, when
he usurped the throne of Hem, tried to compel the empress
to give up the seal, when it fell to the ground slightly
injuring one of the horns of the lizard. Subsequently this
seal cam© into the possession of the Emperor Kuang Wit .
After the rebellion of Tung Cho, Sun Chien found it when
digging a well, and sent it back to listen 77, who soon
after resigned it to the Wei The Wei resigned it to the
Chin, from whom it passed to the SuL After the assassi-
nation of Yang 77, the Empress Hsiao tied with it to the
north, till in the fourth year of Chhi-knan (a. d. 630) the
Empress Hsiao sent the seal as an offering to tile T'ang.
When Pei T i (the last emperor of the After Pang, a. d,
935) burned himself it is not known what became of I he
seal. The Old Rules of the Han dynasty says that there
were in the Han palace six State seals, all made of white
jade, with handles in the form of horned lizards, the
inscriptions on which were: “The despatch-seal of the
Emperor 7 ’ ; “The seal of the Emperor” ; “The true seal
of the Emperor 7 !; “The despatch-seal of the Son of
Heaven 17 ; “ The seal of the Son of Heaven- 7 ; and “The
true seal of the Son of Heaven. 37 Of these six seals the
first was used on imperial despatches sent to the nobles
and princes, the third to summon t lie high officers for a
military expedition, the fourth on despatches sent to
foreign countries, as well as in the worship of heaven,
earth, and the gods.

The Book on Official Robes (of the “Han Annals 77 )
says that, according to the rules of the I fan , the Son of
Heaven wore a seven lobed hat of jade. The Book on
Imperial Equipage says that the seal of Lnmt’ien jade of
the CP in dynasty, with lizard handle, was not included
among the six seals. It was worn by the Emperor Kao
Tsu , and was known afterwards as the seal of succession
to the empire. Again, that the Emperor Kao Tsu , when
lie ascended the throne and offered worship to Heaven,
used jade tablets, of brilliant white color, flecked with
spots, and with moss-like markings of red, green, brown,

340

JADE AS A MINERAL.

and with black tints shining brightly through three leaves
in number, inscribed with a hundred and seventy charac-
ters, in the official script of the IIa% written in clear and
strong style. The u Han Annals,” in the Memoir of Kao
Ti , record that the sovereign had wine set out in the front
hall of the Wehyang palace, and offered a jade cup filled
with it to his imperial father, wishing him long life.
Again, that the Emperor Kao Tsu sent Chang Liang with
a present of a square vessel of jade to Fan Tseng.

The Imperial Annals oE the T'ang record that the
founder of that dynasty was the first to fix rules for
girdles, and from the Son of Heaven down to the heredi-
tary nobles and princes, the three chief ministers, the
presidents of the boards, generals and officers of the first
and second grade, all these were allowed to wear girdles
of jade, that of the Son of Heaven being set with twenty-
four plaques. The Chronicles of the reign of Ming
Huang relate that the Empress, having sent one day for
the Imperial grandsons, and seated herself in the palace to
look at their games of play, had the jade rings, bracelets,
wine-cups, and dishes, that had been sent as tribute from
western countries, brought out and arranged so that each
one might take whatever lie pleased, when they all
crowded up and took as much as they could, the sovereign
alone sitting still quite impassive. The Empress marvelled
greatly and stroked him on the back, exclaiming: u This
child will grow up to become a most peaceful Emperor,”
and ordered a jade dragon to be brought, which she gave
to him. This jade dragon was several inches long, and
had been originally found by the Emperor Tai Tsung in
the Chin-yang palace, and the Empress Wen Te used to
keep it in her box with her robes, and now that it was
given to the emperor, he valued it most highly. It was
afterwards placed in the Treasury, and although only a
few inches in size, its warm liquid body and cunning
workmanship made it absolutely unique. Whenever no
rain fell in the capital it was reverentially brought out.
and prayers were offered ; and if an abundant rain was
about to fall, the horns appeared on close inspection to be

JADE AS A MINERAL.

347

rai se<L A Record of the reign of K'ai-yium relates that
whenever under the T'ang dynasty an imperial child was
born in the palace, the emperor sent jade money with t lie
sliced frui t as ^ baby washing gifts 37 % of good augury,
the money being inscribed with prayers of prosperity.
The Miscellanies of Tu-yang relate that the Emperor Su
Tsung bestowed on Li Fu-kuo two unicorns carved in
fragrant jade, which could be smelt several hundred paces
oil, and that Fu-kuo used to keep them beside his seat.

The Regulations of the Imperial (Sung) Dynasty say
tli at when the dynasty was re-established there were kept
in the Imperial Treasury eleven jade seals. The first,

called the “ State-protecting sacred seal / 5 was inscribed

“Endowed by Heaven with prosperity for myriads and
tens of myriads of years everlasting . 5 1 The second, called
the “seal of appointment , 75 was inscribed “Having re^
oeived the appointment from Heaven for everlasting
time. These two seals were used in the worship of the
mountain Thai Sham The third, called the “seal of the
Son of Heaven, 7 ' was used in replies to foreign countries.
The fourth, called the “ true seal of the Son of Heaven . 73
was used for the levy of a great army. The fifth, called
the “ despatch-seal of the Son of Heaven , 77 was used to
seal the appointments of nobles, etc. The sixth, called
the “seal of the Emperor , 77 was used in replies to border
kingdoms. 'Hie seventh, called the “ true seal of the
Emperor, was used on despatches accompanying pres-
ents to border kingdoms. The eighth, called the “ de-
spatch-seal of the Emperor ,- 7 was used to seal imperial
autographs. The above were what were called the eight
state seals. The ninth, called the “seal of appointment , 77
had an inscription written by the founder of the dynasty,
reading: “The seal of appointment of the Great Sung . 77
The tenth, called the “seal of established rule , 77 has an

* It is the custom in China to wash the chill for the first time on the third
day after its birth, the function being performed with certain religious cere-
monies and oblations of fruit and wine. Charms of ancient cash, silver talis-
mans, or such -like gifts of good omen arc provided, one of which is bound
round the wrist of the child by a red string find kept on till the wearer is four-
teen days old.

£:fllp

l awi

■

1 — 0 '

JADE AS A MINERAL,

inscription written by the Emperor Hid Tsung , reading:
“Rule encompassing heaven and earth, and aiding the
spirits in dark places ; power equal to the great creator
for a myriad ages everlasting,” The eleventh, called the
“seal of re-established appointment,” was inscribed the
“seal of appointment of the re-established Great Sung.”
Including the above, there were in all eleven seals.

Under the reigning Manclm dynasty the court girdle
worn by the Emperor is of yellow color, with foursquare
plaques of gold engraved with dragons. The ornaments
are lapis lazuli for the services at the Temple of Heaven,
of yellow jade for the Altar of Earth, of red coral for the
Altar of the Sun, of white jade for the Altar of the Moon.
The jade palanquin and jade chariot (which the Emperor
rides in) are both made of wood lacquered red, each one
decorated with four round panels of jade. The State seals
are kept in the Chiao-t’ai palace, and there are twenty-
three jade seals, inscribed: “The seal of appointment of
the Great CIV ing dynasty,” “The seal of the Son of
Heaven,” “The seal of honor for kindred of the Emperor,”
“The seal of love for kindred of the Emperor,” “The
true seal of the Emperor,” “The seal of reverence to
heaven and zeal for the people” : all made of white jade.
“The seal of the Emperor for the worship of heaven,”
“The despatch-seal of the Emperor,” “ The despatch-seal
of the Son of Heaven,” “ The seal of Imperial order,”
“The seal of gracious instruction,” “The seal of promul-
gation of the classics and history”: all made of dark-
green jade. “The seal of the Emperor,” “The true seal
of the Son of Heaven,” “The seal of Imperial patent,”
“The seal of reward of valor,” “The seal of control of
Empire,” “The seal of punishment of crime and quiet of
the people,” “The seal of Imperial regulation of the
myriad regions,” “The seal of Imperial regulation of the
myriad people” : all of clear-green jade. “The seal of
Imperial autographs,” “The seal of Command of the Six
Armies,” and “The seal of wide region” : all made of
black jade. Besides these, there are the State seals rever-
entially kept at Sheng-king (the capital of Manchuria),

JADE AS A MINERAL,

S4£

including the six jade seals, inscribed: “The seal of
appointment of the Great Citing (dynasty), “ The seal of
the Emperor,” “The seal of reverence of heaven, respect
of ancestors, affection for scholars, love of the people ” :
all three made of dark-green jade, “The seal of the
Emperor,” “The vermilion seal of examination of the
four quarters,” and “The seal of Imperial command” ;
all made of clear-green jade.

Again, when sacrificial titles are conferred in honor of
deceased Emperors and Empresses, jade seals and jade
tablets are always used, and reverentially placed in the
Ancestral Temple. These are all carefully made in the
Imperial household, and presented in the first place to be
inspected by the Emperor.

The above are some clear examples of the use of jade
by Emperors of successive dynasties.

vr. JADE USED BY THE STATE.

The use of jade by the Son of Heaven has been shown
to be most constant, and in like manner it has always
been as highly esteemed by the State, as may be proved
by consulting the records still extant and searching the
official writers. In the u Book of Annals,” in the second
entitled Hounds of Lu, the precious jades were distrib-
uted among the uncles of the King ruling over States. In
the “ Rites of Chou,” the Superintendent of the Magazine
of Jade, looked after the gold and jade of the king, made
ready the jade worn by the King on Ins robes, girdle, and
as jewels, prepared the jade eaten by the King when fast-
ing,* and furnished the jade placed in the mouth of the
royal corpse. Also, the second minister superintended the
officer in charge of the tablets, who distributed them to
the States and explained their use to help the commands
of the King, the rulers of the States using tablets of jade.,

* The emperor fusts before important religious ceremonies, such as in the
annual sacrifice to heaven, spending the night in the Hall for Fasting, one of
the temple buildings, and during his fast the only thing permitted to pass liis
lips ts a kind of puree made of finely powdered jade stirred up in hot water.

350

JADK AS A MINERAL*

Again, under the third minister (of Rites) the Grand
Director of Sacrifices made of jade the six objects used in
worshipping heaven and earth, and tiie four quarters, the
dark -green round tablet {pi) to worship heaven, the yellow
octagonal tablet (tsung) to worship earth, the green
pointed tablet (Jcuel) to worship the east, the red tablet
(chanffy in the form of a half-fees) to worship the south,
the white tiger tablet (7m) to worship the west, and the
black semicircular tablet Qinang) to worship tlie north.
The Commentary, quoting the Mr7i-ya , says that the pi
bad the body twice as broad as the central hole, that the
tsimg had eight sides like the earth, that the kuei had the
top corners on the right and left truncated half an inch,
that the cluing was the kuei halved, that the 7m was
fashioned like a tiger to symbolize the fierceness of
autumn, and that the hitang was the pi cut in halves.
Again, the President of the Celestial Magazine (T'ien-fit)
kept the royal jade tablets and the great sacrificial vessels
of the State, and when there was a grand sacrificial cere-
mony or a royal funeral, he brought them out and
arranged them, and put them by again when the service
was finished* The Commentary says that these tilings
included the jade tablets of rank as well as the most
beautiful vessels of jade, which were set out during the
sacrifices to heaven and to the royal ancestors, as well as
the grand funerals, to attest the splendor of the State.

So the “'Book of Annals, n in the Testamentary Charge
(of King CJt'eng), records that they set out the precious
things, the red knife, the great lessons, the large pi^ and
the jade tablets of rank, all in the western chamber, the
Commentary explaining the pi to be large round symbols
of jade, the two kinds of tablets both one foot and one-
fifth long. Again (in the “Ritual of the Ghou ?, ) t the
T'ien-fn says that the President, in the last month of the
winter, arranged the jade to determine whether the coming
year would be good or bad. The Commentator explains
that the jade arranged was the jade for sacrifice to the
gods* Again, the Conservator of Tablets (Tien jui) lias
charge of the preservation of the jade tablets of rank and the

JADE AS A MINEBAL.

jade vessels. He distinguishes the names, the things, and
the ceremonies in which they are used, and furnishes the
proper appendages to be worn. The Commentary says
that the tablets held in the hand were called jui, which
included the royal tablet as well as the rest, and that
the jade used in the sacrifice to the gods, called here
vessels, included the fourfold kuei, etc. The append-
ages included the mounting, the silk cords and tasseis,
bearing the same relation to the jade as robes to men.
Again, that the efman , kuei, chang, pi, and tsung were
each suspended by a single loop of two colors and worn
by officers at the royal receptions. The fourfold kuei,
with round body, was used in sacrifice to heaven, and in
the worship of t lie supreme ruler. The Commentary says
that this was fashioned round in the centre, a large tablet
being taken and carved in the middle in the form of a
round pi, with the body twice as broad as the hole in
the middle, and on each of the four sides a kuei carved
projecting from each, the central body being also called
ti. Also : The twofold kuei, with central body, used
in sacrifices to earth, and in the worship of the four
quarters. The libation kuei, with ladle (tsctin), for sacri-
ficing to the ancient kings, and for the entertainment
of guests ; explained in the Commentary to be a tablet
carved at the top into a vessel, from which the wine
could be poured out in sacrificial worship, and called
ladle (tsan). Again: The round tablet, with one projection,
(kuei pi), was used in sacrificing to the sun, the moon, the
planets, and the fixed stars. The half- tablet, with point
projecting {chang ti sMJi ), was used in sacrificing to the
mountains and rivers, and in ceremonial banqueting of
guests. The measuring tablet (tu kuei), to measure the
shadows of the sun and moon in the four seasons. The
precious tablet {ohm kuei), to summon garrisons, and to
relieve in times of trouble and famine. The toothed half-
tablet {ya chang), to levy armies, station soldiers and
frontier guards; the Commentator explaining that this was
furnished with carved teeth as emblems of war. The oval
tablet {pi yen) was used for regulating measures; the

Commentator saying that this tablet was one foot from
above downwards, eight* tenths of a foot broad, being a
pi made not round for regulating measures of length.
Again : He ties silk cords through the holes pierced in the
kuel, hatf-£tt£Z, circular, octagonal, tiger-shaped, and
semicircular tablets, and lays aside the round and octag-
onal tablets placed in the coffin ; the Commentator
explaining that channels and holes were driven through
the jade of all six kinds, through which strings were
passed to tie them to the corpse ; the kuei being tied on
the left side, the half-A-wei at the head, the tiger tablet
on the right, the semicircular one at the feet, the circular
tablet under the back, and the octagon on the abdomen ;
a cube figuring a microcosm, emblem of the god of the
universe. The grain tablet Qcu kuei) was used to arrange
disputes, and as a betrothal present. The rounded tablet
{man kuei), to reward virtue and to cultivate good rela-
tions; the Commentator Cheng observing that this tablet
had no sharp edge or point in symbolism of its uses. The
pointed tablet {yen kuei), to change men's conduct and to
punish wickedness; Cheng saving that it had a sharp
edge and a point, in token of its use to punish crime and
to extirpate rebellion. Whenever there are ceremonies
for the entertainment of guests, he prepares the jade
objects and brings them. These are all regulations for the
proper use of the various jade symbols, and we find, also,
in the 1C ao-krmg-cM, a section on the jade workers
whose sole duty it was to make these jade tablets.

The “ Classic of Rites, ” in the section Til tsao , says
that dukes and marquises wore in their girdles black jade
with hills engraved upon it tied with red silk cords ; the
chief officers wore dark-green, wavy jade with black and
white silk cords ; the scions of the royal house wore jade-
like jasper with blue and white silk cords; the scholars
wore another stone resembling jade with red and yellow
silk cords.

The Book on Sacrificial Worship in the “ Former Ilan
Annals” describes the officers in charge as offering the
jade hsiian, explained by the Commentary to mean round

JADE AS A MINERAL,

353

tablets of jade (pi) six-tenths of a foot in diameter. The
Han Chun says that the emperor Wu Ti in the first year
of the Yuan shou period (b, c. 1 22) ordered to be made by
the government the tiger tablets for military officers*
Princes of the blood and nobles used jade tablets ; State
governors, copper tablets. These were numbered with
the characters of the cycle of ten ; the left half was kept
in the capital, the right half given to the officer In com-
mand ; and whenever an expedition was sent to put down
a rebellion, they tirst compared the two pieces of the
tablet. The Book on Official Robes says that, according to
the Han regulations, princes and dukes wore caps of jade
in eight lobes ; marquises, barons, the sons-in-law of the
Emperor, and mandarins of the first grade, seven- lobed
jade caps ; of the second grade, six-lobed jade caps ; of
the third grade, gold caps (or crowns), or five-lobed caps
of dark-colored jade. The Miscellanies of the Western
Capital say that, according to the flan regulations* princes
and dukes were both buried in jewelled robes and jade
chests. A book on events in the “Annals of the Chin
Dynasty” records that when the heir to the throne first
had audience the Emperor presented him with a jade uni-
corn tablet* The Memoirs of the T'ang Emperors record
that Kao Tsu first fixed the official rules for girdles. The
girdles of the hereditary nobles, the princes and dukes, of
commanders-in-chief and ministers of State, were mounted
with thirteen plaques of jade, and had two additional
pieces hanging down behind*

Under the Manchu dynasty at the sacrifices in the
Ancestral Temple and in the second hall of the Ancestral
Temple, as well as in the principal ceremonies at the altar
of the gods of the land and grain, libation-cups of jade
are always used. The Government Statutes of the Great
Cli trig include among the jade objects used in sacrificial
worship round tablets (pi)* octagonal tablets (tsung), and
JcueL In the principal ceremonies at the Temple of
Heaven dark-colored pi are used ; in the principal cere-
monies at the altar of earth are used yellow tsnng / on the
altar of the gods of the land and grain, in the worship of

354

JADE AS A MINERAL.

the cl lief god, white kitei sprinkled with yellow ■ in the
worship of the chief god of grain, green kuel ; on the
altar of the sun, red pi, and on the altar of tile moon,
white pi. All the carefully designed patterns of jade
objects used by the State are here published, so that the
ritual may be established.

vri. T1IE COLORS OF JADE.

Jade is naturally one of the most beautiful substances
created by heaven, and it is highly prized by scholars.
There are many different kinds described, the colors being
distinguished according to their high or low value. The
Encyclopaedia Chi ien-cii o-lei-slm describes jade as being
of live colors. “ The three colors, white, yellow, and
green, are all highly valued. The white of fresh lard is
the most valuable; that like rice-water, with oily stains,
and that with marks like snow, being inferior. Of the
yellow, the most precious is of the color of chestnuts,
which is called pure (lit., sweet) yellow, the smoky yellow
being inferior. Of the dark-green color, the best is of
deep bluish-green tint ; if sprinkled with line black stars,
or if pale in shade, it is less valuable. There is also a red
jade, red as a cock’s comb, which is construed the most
valuable kind of all, but this kind of beautiful jade is of
extremely rare occurrence. Green jade, when of a deep-
green color, is considered precious, the pale being inferior;
transparent-green jade is of a pale-green color, with a
tinge of yellow ; spinach jade, being neither transparent
nor of rich-green color, but of the shade of the leaves of
the vegetable, is the least valued of all. The ink-black
jade is also of no great value.” It says again, that “red
jade is called men, and is also called ch'iung, the last
name conveying the additional meaning of translucid ;
that brown jade is called ten; half white and red, ./ uan ;
bright-green jade, he; dark- colored, yi ; black jade,
ehioh ; black jade of which mirrors can be made, chin."
Again, Wang Yi’s book on jade, Yii-lun, describing the
colors of jade, includes red as the cock's comb, yellow as

JADE AS A MINERAL*

boiled chestnuts, white as freshly cut lard, black as pure
lac ; these being called jade tests, but there is no mention
here of green jade. In the present day the green
white colors are very common, and black is occasionally
met with, but the red and yellow hardly exist ; so that,
even for the six vessels of sacrificial worship, it is impossi-
ble always to find genuine pieces.

Yi-chou produces a kind of stone of the color of boiled
chestnuts, which is called by the natives chestnut jade,
and is supposed by some to be a kind of yellow jade, but it
is wanting in brilliance and translucent^, and fails to give
out a clear, resonant sound when struck, so that others say
that this chestnut jade of Yi-chou is only a brilliant,
trails lucid kind of common stone, not really jade. Jade is
hard, and its polished surface cannot be hurt by fire or
edged weapon, whereas this kind of yellow stone can be
easily carved by a small knife, arid it is similar in structure
to the white stone of Chieh-chou, though different in
color,

Shi Inch on (in the Pen4$'ao) says that, according to the
T'ai-ping-gu4a% white jade came from Chiao chon, red
jade from Fu-yu, green jade from Yidou, spinach-green
jade from Tn-Clrin, black jade from Usi-Slm, fine jade, in
color like indigo, from Lan-t J ien, whence the place derived
its name. Huai Nan Tzu says that the jade of Chung Shan
could be heated in a charcoal stove for three days and
nights, without any change of color, because it was
endowed with the pure essence of heaven and earth* In
the Ancient Kites, the green tablet (kue%), the dark
cerulean pi, the yellow octagonal tsung, the red cluing,
the white tiger-shaped hit, and the black, semicircular
Iniaiig , all derived their names from the symbolism of
heaven, earth, and the four quarters.

In the present day white is the color most sought after
in jade, and modern amateurs of jade generally keep a set
of patterns for comparison. These patterns are little
oblong tablets carved out of the purest and finest jade,
arranged according to their colors by a clever connoisseur,
in a set of ten, numbered in correspondence with their

respective values* Whenever a piece of jade is added to
the collection, these patterns are brought out and coin-
pared with the color of the piece, so that it may be put
into one of the ten classes. The rarest kind of all is white
and translucid, like mutton fat, tinged with faint pink
throughout, and this is called the tenth grade of the colors.
This is, however, of the greatest rarity and very seldom
seen, so that a dealer in jade, in his whole lifetime, may
not succeed in getting a single specimen, and should one
piece be found out of ten thousand, it is cherished as a
jewel of rare price and of inestimable value. The next in
value are placed in the ninth grade, then come the eighth
and seventh, down to the least valuable pieces, included in
the second and first grades. The pieces of fine white jade
in ordinary collections belong generally to the fifth and
sixth grades, for not only is it difficult to become the
fortunate possessor of a specimen of the tenth grade,
examples even of the ninth and eighth grades are not easily
found.

Ink-black jade is black throughout like ink. When
its substance is entirely translncid and shines brightly
like a mirror, without brain-like marks or spots of
any other color, it is good ; if the color be pale or not
uniform, or dull and not brilliant, it is inferior. There
is another kind of sprinkled ink-black jade, commonly
known as ink-spot jade. This is of white body, with
black spots, as if made by sprinkling with a brush
dipped in liquid ink, and when the spots are clearly
defined and regularly distributed through the mass
it is valuable ; but if the darker portion be not broken up
into spots, or if the lighter part be surrounded by a halo,
in neither case is it worth having. There is another kind
of jade which is half black, half white, the two colors
united in one piece with lines of de mar Ration sharply
defined ; the one white as lard, the other black as ink, not
mixing with each other. When this comes into the hands
of the worker in jade he plans a special design according
to the size and color, and carves the piece, and often suc-
ceeds in producing a clever work of art, imitating a spon-

JADE AS A MINERAL.

357

taneotis growth of nature. Thus are found rare pieces of
unrivalled skill, and this peculiar kind of artistic work is
worthy of a collector of culture.

Among white jades there is one special variety invested
with a skin. This kind comes from Ho-tien (Khotan), and
is found in the rivers among the best jade pebbles produced
there. It seems that the stones which are found in the
river have been rolled down by the current, and after the
water has subsided they lie exposed in the bed of the river,
to be burnt by the sun and blown about by the wind, acted
on by the water and rubbed by the sand, till after a long
time a coat is formed on the jade, a kind of light-reddish
skin, the color of an autumn pear, which is called russet
pear-skin. This skin may enclose a jade of either good or
bad quality. In llie present day, snuff-bottles, thumb-
rings for archers, tubes for peacock’s feathers, mouth-
pieces for tobacco pipes, etc., are often carved out of this
kind of jade, and are twice as valuable as those made of the
ordinary varieties. But the color of the skin must be
exactly like that of the rind of the russet pear; if deeper
or lighter in the tint it is not esteemed.

The dark-green jade (pui/ii) which comes from the
southern border (of China), is of a very strong and hard
body but dull in color, and it is also often variegated with
brain-like marks. It occurs, however, in very large and
heavy pieces, like the fish-bowl (weng) of jade which
stands in the Prohibited Grounds in front of the Cheng
Kuang Palace,* which is between six and seven feet in
diameter, so that a man can lie down nt full length inside.
This is only considered valuable from its unusual size.

With regard to yellow jade and clear-green jade, good
specimens are seldom seen, and they are generally valued

* Tli% palace Is in Poking, within the imperial city, on the eastern hank of
tile lake, where it is spanned by u marble bridge. The foreign envoys have
bad their audience of the emperor of late years in one of its halls. The
immense bowl referred to stands in the grounds, outside the audience hall. It
is of oval shape and rounded section, with a round mouth, tlie diameter of
which is about two-thirds of that of the middle of the bowl. It is said to date
from the Tuan dynasty (12S0-13fi7) t when the palace was founded, and to hare
occupied the same place ever since.

3o8

JADE AS A MINERAL*

in proportion to the purity of the color and bright trail s-
lucency, the inferior kinds being dull and mixed with
other shades. Vegetable jade is a variety of green jade, of
deep-green color like spinach, from which it derives its name.
The dealers call this kind Ma-na-ssu. Ma-na-ssu (Manas)* is
the name of a Mohammedan walled city in the New
Dominion (Turkistan), which gives its name to jade,
because the spinach jade is a product of that place, and
hence it is called by the same name as the city.

VIH, ANCIENT JADE.

Scholars of the present day who love antiquity and
learned research all consider ancient jade to be the rarest
of treasures. Ancient jade is jade that has lain buried in
the earth and been discovered again. The jade has lain
buried in the ground, either lost in times of famine, or
sunk in water during an inundation, or when lakes were
being planted with mulberry trees and reclaimed. Some-
times it has been purposely buried and subsequently for-
gotten, at other times overwhelmed by falling mountains
or fallen into earthquake cracks. It may have remained
hidden in the bowels of the earth for centuries until it be
found again, when it is submitted to skilful manipulation
and becomes a valued specimen of ancient jade. The
process of manipulation of ancient jade is to put it into a
cotton bag filled with bran and to submit it carefully to
daily friction for some months or even years, till the old

*The city takes its name from the river Manas, which 1ms its fivefold source
on the northern slopes Of the lofty Khatun Bogdn Mountains and runs north
to the lake Ehi Nor Gold as well as Jade h found near its source. This river
is also called by the Chinese Clung lio, or Clear River, on account of the
transparent purity of its current. The jade found here, according to Ifing-ho
$hi-Y/h SkmA'ao-cht, bk. Ill, fob 34), is of a translucid, very dark -green
color with mottled stains. It is described by him as obtained from the river-
bed, where it occurs in blocks, the largest of which weigh several tens
of catties. A similar kind of jade is found at Botugol, near Irkutsk in Siberia,
specimens of which have been sent to all the museums of Europe by M. Ali-
bert. One of these, an immense water-worn block of irregular ovoid form in
lire British Museum, is 4 feet long and weighs 115G lbs. There is a small
polished bowl (No. 8129) in the Bishop Collection.

JADE AW A MINERAL,

869

substance of the jade shall appear, when the work is
finished.

Han yu , literally jade lie Id in the month, was originally
used for the jade that in ancient times used to be put into
the mouth of the corpse when laid out for burial.* Some
scholars of the present time, however, apply this term not
only to jade found in tombs, but also include under it
all ancient jade that has been buried in the earth ;
others err more deeply still, in writing it as jade
of the Han dynasty ; but both these views are, in my
opinion, wrong. In ancient times they often buried jade
with dead bodies because of its beauty and high value. It
was also used in former times because when mercury was
used to preserve the dead, the quicksilver being liquid
tended to flow out, and had to be sealed up by the addi-
tion of jade, so that jade was employed to close up all the
orifices of the body to prevent the mercury injected into
the corpse from escaping. But the jade thus put into dead
bodies must get stained by them. In this way the material,
sis it lies buried in the ground for long years, becomes
gradually decomposed and rotten, so that other substances
can penetrate and discolor it — that is what is called
u staining.” The jade, originally of pure-white color and
perfectly translucid, after having been stained in the
corpse, cannot but have its purity soiled, so that this kind
is not so highly valued as other ancient jades. When jade
has been buried for over 500 years the stains penetrate its
substance; after 1000 years it becomes as soft as common
stone ; after 2000 years, as soft as lime ; after 3000 years,
as soft as decayed bone, this being the extreme limit of the
life of ancient jade, so that it is no use looking for jade
anterior to the first three dynasties. Ancient jade when
first dug up from the ground is called u salt-meat bones
after it has been handled for a long time the jade recovers

“The custom of placing something precious in the hand or mouth of
the corpse is ancient and widespread. The Romans used to put an phal li &
under the tongue of the deceased as a fee for Charon for his ferry over the
liver Styx, and even in the present day, at an Irish wake for instance, the dead
has a piece of money put in his hand to pay his way with.

860

•TAD E AS A MINERAL.

its old translucency, and it is called “salt-meat skin
tliese two names being derived from its color and general
aspect. When it lias been still further manipulated in the
bran bag it is known as shelled ancient jade; this name
meaning that the jade, which while buried in the ground
for some thousands of vears has been corroded bv the
earth and stained by other things, till it is as rotten as
decayed bone, after having been dug np and submitted to
friction and manipulation becomes once more translucid
and brilliant, and the impurities all cleared away, till it
comes out of the bran bag as brilliant and pure as a precious
stone, the rottenness being at one stroke all u shelled ” off.
Jade which has been corroded by the earth becomes
loose and rotten in texture, so that mercury is able to soak
through the skin and stain it. In every place there is
always some mercury in the ground, so that it is not only
that put into the body in ancient times. Once the mercury
has soaked in, lime, earth, and various other substances
can in their turn soak through and penetrate the interior.
Many substances thus gradually soak through and make
stains of many different colors. Some stained by yellow
clay becomes yellow in color ; some stained by turpentine,
of a still deeper tint, and this, after manipulation, comes
out of the color of amber and is known as “ old dry
yellow. n Some stained by lime is red in color, and this
by friction becomes like the blossom of the double peach,
and is known ns '‘child’s carnation. M Some stained by
indigo is blue in color, from the dye of the clothes having
soaked through, and this, which may be either light or
dark in tint, is known as “old dry blued’ Some stained
by mercury is black in color, but it can acquire this color
only when a large quantity of mercury Inis soaked in-
meaning by n large quantity of mercury, so much as used
to be put in the corpses of ancient kings and princes, not
the mercury naturally present in the ground and the effect
of which must be distinguished. After friction this color
comes out like the blackest metallic paper, and is known as
“ pure lac black/’ Some stained by human blood is
crimson in color, that found In dead bodies for instance.

JADE AS A MINERAL.

361

which may be dark or light in tint, and which is known as
* 6 jujube red*” Some stained by bronze objects is green in'
color, because bronzes when buried for long years become
green and blue, and stain the jade lying beside them of the
same colors, like the tints of the kingfisher s feathers, and
this when it has been submitted to friction in the bran bag
comes out of yet more beautiful colors, not to be surpassed,
and is known as “parrot-green.” . Specimens of this
beautiful variety are rarely seen in collections, and are
most highly prized. In addition to these there are other
colors, caused by the staining of different substances, of so
many kinds that they cannot be separately described.
Among the names of the colors are vermilion -red, cocks-
comb red, grape-purple, aubergine-purple, hibiscus-yellow,
chestnut-yellow, pine-green, salisburia-green, mutton-fat
white, rice-husk white, shrimp-spawn green, and mucus-
green, these last two greens being only found from stain-
ing in ground of the South. These rare kinds of different
colors are all included under the general name of u the
thirteen colors,”

There are other cases of staining producing peculiar trans-
formations like the mottling of a toad’s skin, like cloud
masses, like crackle porcelain, like bullock’s hair, like
crab’s claws, or like scattered pearls. The origin of all
these different stains is truly most difficult to distinguish
precisely* Ranging in space through myriads of miles,
and in time some five thousands of years, over a vast
territory with all kinds of productions, and buried, more-
over, in the depths of the earth to be fra ns formed under the
source of the water-springs; even though a scholar were
learned in physics, yet all his knowledge would not suffice,
nor would his cleverest guesses be able, to solve the prob-
lem, and there would be places that would not be reached.

IX. FJCI-TS’UI.

Fei-ts’ui is originally the name of a bird (a kingfisher,
Alcedo halcyon , or ispida) found in Y ii-lin (in the province
of Kuangsi), the cock being reddish and called the lien

363

JADE AS A MINEK AL-

bright green, called ts'ui. In the present day the name is
applied to green jade on account, of the similarity of the
color, but it is not known front which dynasty it starts*
In the Kw ei-i" len-lit we read that u Ou-yang Hsiu* lmd in
his house a large jade bowl {w#ng) of most antique aspect
and workmanship and artistically carved, which, when lie
first got it, was pronounced by Me! Shong-yu to be of
ordinary green jade (pi-pu). While living at Ying-chou
he often showed this bowl to his visitors, and there hap-
pened to be sitting there one day a military officer named
Teng Pao-chi, an old eunuch of the court of the emperor
Chen Tsung, who knew what it was and said : £ This is the
precious jade which is called fei-ts'uL Among the precious
tilings preserved in the palace of the Yi-sheng Treasury
there was a fei -ts'ui wine-cup (chan), from which I first
came to know it. ? Happening one day afterwards to rub
lightly a gold ring along the interior of the bowl, the gold
was gradually rubbed off, just as a cake of ink is rubbed
down on a stone pallet, whereby it was first known that
fei-ts'ul could reduce gold to powder. Thus we see that
the name of feints' ui was applied to green jade as early as
this time (eleventh century a, d.)*

The fei-t&ul of modern times is found in Burma
(Miemtien kuo) in the midst of high mountains. It occurs
in the middle of the rocks, and natives first chisel out of
the rocks the rough jade, which is found in masses varying
in size, up to the weight of, a thousand, or even ten thou-
sand, catties. These are very coarse in appearance and
color, brownish yellow like the outside of a salted ham,
and would be taken by an ignorant man for blocks of
common stone* The places have long been worked, and the
superficial and easily worked parts are exhausted, so that
the fines t jade is inside, and i t is n ecessary t o dig deep d o w 1 1
to extract aii3 F . But mining so deeply and groping in the
dark are hard tasks for the laborers, and recently the novel
method o£ blasting the rocks by gunpowder lias been
introduced and has taken the place of other manual labor.

* Celebrated among the foremost statesmen of t he Sung dynasty, and author
of many historical and critical works. Flourished A, d. 1017-1073*

JADE AS A MINERAL.

363

By this method, when the overseer has discovered a place
'Containing pieces of felts' aL he directs the miners to drive
in tunnels below the mountain to the depth of some five or
ten feet, and to fill them with blasting powder. The
mouths of the tunnels are then sealed, and the powder
exploded in the ordinary way. The mountain falls and
the rocks are split, and th e fel ls' ui can be afterwards
picked out. But the jade got in this way is generally
much scarred and cracked, so that large perfect pieces are
rarely obtained; and the new material of modern times is
very often marked with willow-like scars for the same
reason.

After it has been mined it is necessary to examine closely
the texture and veins, and to look carefully for traces of
color, holding it up to the light of a lamp or the sun, to
see if any shade of green can be reflected from the interior,
a sign that there is hope of its containing fei-ts'uL It is
then given to the workers in jade to be split open, and if
of pure emerald-green color, clear and translucid, neither
oily nor dry and without spots and scars, of wholly
translucid body, and color noth deep and full, it is
considered to be of the highest value. When on a ground
of pure white there are sprinkled some spots of deep
green, instinct, as it were, with life and movement,
sharply defined and not shading down, of clear trans-
lucency without flaw, it is known as pretty green, n
and is also of high value. When, on the contrary, the
green color is either pale or clouded, or although deep yet
approaching black, or when the white color is grey like
the ashes of a joss-stick, or cloudy like a bad stone, all
these varieties are not worth collecting. There is another
kind where the whole body is pale emerald -green, which at
first sight appears to be valuable, but on more careful
examination the color disappears and leaves no clear trace
behind, so that it is impossible to define exactly the green
part. When the green color is strewn with black spots,
or when it is mixed with white powder, it is also included
in the category of common stuff.

There are other differences in the rough ore, depending

364

JADE AS A MINERAL.

on its coming from old mines or from new mines. The
fei-tsHii) growing in the bowels of the rock, becomes
gradually formed inside and develops in the dark its
brilliant color during an unknown succession of years, till
it becomes fully formed into perfect jade. When the full
time has elapsed, the power of growth being so great, it is
organized into a perfectly formed specimen. Hence, when
weighed in the hand, it is of heavy specific gravity, and
when tested by the eye, its colors are fully developed.
The innate power of growth has produced a kind of deep,
full, and rich tone, penetrating and reining the whole
substance; and this is known as “old mine ore/' But
when the green is only of some days’ growth and not fully
formed, and it is dug up prematurely and so prevented
from attaining its perfect development, the color, even if
fairly good, fails to show the full rich brilliance, the
texture is light and loose, and the body wanting in
strength and firmness; and this is known as “new mine
ore / 5 To determine whether a piece be of new or old ore,
and to distinguish accurately the rich and the immature
state, require the practiced eye of a connoisseur, and the
distinctive points can only be generally sketched, as it is
impossible to describe them exactly by the pen or by word
of mouth. When, however, the worker in jade comes to
carve the piece, it can easily be distinguished as new or
old, because the old, being of hard substance, requires
much labor; whereas the new ore, being of soft body, is
more easily worked, so that the mere act of splitting it
open is sufficient to determine its real nature.

After it has been carved into a work of art and polished
to a brilliant surface, the color shines out in its full beauty,
and gives the artistic work a rare value, so that it excels in
color the waves of spring and in brilliance the precious
emerald. Put into water, its green color permeates the
whole mass; placed on the table, its powerful brilliance
dazzles the eyes. This is the most precious kind of
fei-ts'm; its beauty is such that an ordinary man hardly
ventures to keep it In his private possession.

With regard to the various things made of it, there may

JADE AS A MINERAL,

305

be seen in the imperial grounds melons carved out of
fei-ts' ui ; and there are exhibited in the rooms of the
palace vegetables (cabbages)* as if growing there. There
are flower-vases, fruit-dishes, bowls, and wine-cups for the
decoration of the banqueting table ; ear- jewels, hairpins,
and rings for the daily adornment of beloved beauty. For
appendages to be worn with the official robes there are
tubes for the peacock’s feather and beads for the rosary;
for personal adornment there are pins for the hair and
rings for the archer's thumb, Bests for the pencil-brush
and cylindrical vases for holding paint-brushes light up
with their beauty the study of the scholar j tobacco pipes
and snuff-bottles are carved for the rich and luxurious.
The value of a pair of bracelets to encircle the arm will
exceed a thousand ounces of silver ; the price of a single
buckle for a girdle round the waist will amount to several
hundreds. The eighteen beads (of the small rosary), the
number of the Buddhist Arhats (Bohan), are rich jewels
for the breast ; the two-headed pins, for winding the hair
round, make bright ornaments for the crown of the head.
Other things, like the ornaments and Buddha’s heads hung
as appendages upon the rosary, the flower* petals and butter-
fly-wings sewn upon velvet on the headdress, although
of very minute size, are valuable when of brilliant color.
Specimens of the highest class are really equal in value to
“several walled cities” ; they are the special product of
the miraculous creative power of hills and rivers, and are
cherished as precious jewels by rich men of the present
day.

Some say that jade when red in color is called fei^ when
green in color ts'ut, after the names of the differently
colored kingfishers ; but the red jade is of very rare occur-
rence, and so the general mime of fei-fs^ui is applied to-
green jade. In former times, however, there existed a
kind of jade, each piece of which exhibited the two colors,
red and green, both so pure and bright as to dazzle fhe-
eyes, and this was really worthy of the name.

With regard to the green bowl in the possession of
Ou-yang Hsiu described in the KiCel-V ien lu, which was

366

JADE AS A MINE HAD.

able to reduce gold to powder, the fei-ts’ui of modern
times, when carved and polished, is bright, smooth, and
of fine surface, and therefore incapable of pulverizing the
different metals, from which it may perhaps be inferred
that the precious jade called fei-ts'ui at that time may be
different from that known as fei-ts'ui in the present day.

vb-Y iw y ru t~i akaa

man

APPEKDIX.

TITLES OF SEVENTY-ONE BOOKS QUOTED IN THE DISCOURSE ON JADE,

1. Shu Ching. Classical Book of Annals, Compiled by Confucius about

r>00 b. c. Translated by Dr* Legge, Chinese Clamcs, YoL
III, Parts 1, 2.

2, Chou Li . Ritual of the Chou dynasty (b. c. 1122-249), With an appen-

dix, ICaokung-chi, on various handicrafts. Said to have been
written about 1100 b. c. Translated into French by Biot,
1651.

6, Li Chi. Rook of Rites. One of the Five Classics.

4. Po wu-chih. Records of Remarkable Objects, by Chang Hua, a. d,

232-800, a native of Fan-yang (near the present Peking).

5. Huai Mm Tm. A Taoist work by a descendant of the first emperor of

the IIau dynasty, named Liu An, Prince of Huai Xan, who
died 122 b, c.

6. Yu-chiug-Cott. Illustrated Book on Jade Mirrors. Author unknown,

7. Til Shu . An old Book on Jade, Author unknown,

8. Peti Ts’ao. Standard works on Materia Medica collected in the well-

known Pen-t&’ao-kang-mu, m 52 books, by Li Sluh-ehtm of the
Ming dynasty. Sixteenth century a. d.

9. Yi-wu-ckih. Record of strange things by Yang Fu of the Sul dynasty,

a. d. 581-618.

10. Pieh-p&o-ching. Classic of various precious things,

11. Chang Huang -yi I Is ing-ch e ng-c h i . Record of the itinerary of Chang

Kuang-yi t who was sent on an embassy to K hot an by the first
emperor of the After Chin dynasty in the year 938. lie was
sent again to Khotan by the founder of the Sung dynasty in
961, {llutoirode Kotan, par A. Hemusat, pp, 74-88).

12. Sou-shen-ehL A Collection of Legends by Yii pao, who lived in the

early part of the fourth century.

13. Hh'7t-ya. An ancient Dictionary of Terms used in the Classics, divided

into 19 sections, each treating of a different class of subjects.

14. Hsi-yil-win-chUa4u. A description, in 8 books, of Eastern Turkistan

and neighboring countries, by Chi Shih-yi, a Manchu officer,
published in 1777.

15. Fu-jui-t'ou. An illustrated book on Jade Talismans, etc,, by IT ss li

Shandisin of tlie sixth century.

16. YunhuL A dictionary complied by Ilsiung Chung of the Yuan

Dynasty, thirteen Hi century.

17. Hsiang yu shu , A book on Jade. Author unknown,

18. Tao-te-ching, The famous classic of the Taoists, by Lao Tzu, written

at the close of the sixth century b. c.

367

368

.T A D K AS A MINERAL,

19. Han Fei Tzti. The works of Han Fei, a philosopher of the third cen-
tury b. C.

SO. Biien Clung. A Taoist book of medical prescriptions, quoted in the
P&n-U'ao.

21. Shih Chi tig. The Classic Book of Odes, compiled by Confucius about

500 b„ c, Translated by Dr, Legge, Chinese Classics VoL
IV, Parts l t 2.

22, Wu-yin-eJ&yim. A dictionary by Han Tao-cbao of the Chin dynasty,

twelfth century.

S3. Shuo-wen. The celebrated ancient dictionary by Hsft Shen T written at
the close of the first century a. i >,

24. Pai Kuan. By Clbou Yuan, Tuan dynasty, twelfth or thirteenth

century.

25. ChHen BmWang Mang Chuan . The life of the usurper Wang M mg

(a. d. 9-23) in the History of the former Han dynasty.

26. JM-chinff tm-chi. A record of incidents at ClDuig-am the metropolis

during the Han dynasty, by Liu Him who lived about the
beginning of our era.

27. Tu-yang4m-pitin. A record of rare and curious objects brought to

China by Bu 0 from a. d. 763-872. Latter part of ninth
century*

28. T’ien-pao-gi-shih. Mutters omitted in the annals of the THm* ptw

period (742-756). By Wang JGn-yu. Tenth century.

29. Yu-yang-tm-tm. Essays on the productions of China and foreign

nations, etc. In 20 books. Written by Tuan Ch’Sng-shih,
towards the end of the eighth century.

30. Ti-chizn-chi . By Hung Mai, a celebrated writer of the Sung dynasty,

w ho lived a. d, 1123-1203.

3L Shih-cku Historical records, by the famous historiographer Ssu ma
Ch’ien, b. c. 163-85.

32. Tso Chuan, Amplification of the ancient annals of the Slate of Lu. in

the present province of Shantung, extending from 722 to 484
b. a By Tso Obi mining, one of the disciples of Confucius.

33. Han Wu Ku-shih. A record relating to the time of the Emperor Wu Ti,

b. c. 140 86, attributed to Pan Ku, Others believe it to be
a compilation of the T'ang dynasty.

34. Ho-fou-yu-pan. Seems to be a production of the Han period. It is

quoted in the Poicu-chih.

35. SMhchou-cJd. A fabulous description of ten insular kingdoms attrib-

uted to Tung- fan g-so. Second century b. c.

36. Poo Fu4m. A work on Taoist philosophy, alchemy, charms, etc.

By Ivo Hung, Third and fourth centuries A. u.

37. Ming Tzh. The works of Mencius, fourth century b. C. Translated

by Dr, Legge, Chit me Classics, YoL IL

38. Han Shu. History of tbe (Former) Han dynasty, 292 b. a -25 a* D.

Compiled by Pan Ku, who died 92 a. $x

39. San-fu-huang-Cou, An ancient description of the public buildings in

Ch'ang-an, the metropolis of the Han.

JADE AS A MINERAL,

40. Wei Shu.

i>, 886-558, Compiled by

History of the Wei dynasty.

Wei Shou,

4 1 . Hu TV u ng pieh-ehu an. B i ogra phy of I hi Ta u ng in the St m Kuo- eh ih , u r
History of the Three Kingdoms (a, d. 220-280), book 02,
YCyuan. By Liu Ching-shu, of the Lin Sung dynasty. Fifth century,
Liang-dhou Chi . Description of the province of Liang-ehou (the
modern Kansu). Fourth or fifth century.

Shih-yi Chi . Record of tilings omitted in the annals of the empire, by
Wang Chia, Fourth century.

Aim Shill, Southern History, a. d. 420-589, Compiled by Li Yen-
shou.

Tang Liu Tien , Canons of the Six Boards of the T'ang dynasty, in
30 books, drawn up by the Emperor Yuan Tsung in the
early part of the eighth century.

T\tng Shu, History of the Thing dynasty, a. t>. G18— DOT, hv Ou-vang
Ilsiu.

Sung Shu. History of the Sung dynasty, a, d. 900-1280. Compiled by
To To,

Hsu Wen I Lien T'ung K’ao . Supplement to the Weu-h Hen -t'ung-Lao of
Ala Tuan-lin, compiled by Wang Chi in 1586 t an 254 books.
Chin Sink, History of the Chin dynasty, a, d. 1115-1234. Compiled
by To To.

JCai Shan T’ou . An old book quoted in the Rn-yh-Voiu describing
hew Ytl Wang opened the country after the l&kndations,
San-li Tou. 1 11 vast rations of the Three Rituals, by Liu Ling, fifteenth
century,

Lu-p r u chi . Description of the imperial travelling equipage.

54, Mu Tien-tzft Chuat i. A narrative of the adventures of the Emperor

Mu Wang (1000 n. €.), on Ids journey to the West, Said to
have been found in the tomb of one of the Wei princes in
A. D, 281.

55. Chilian Kuo-hsi Kite. Researches on the seals of succession to the

empire.

5 0 . II® n Ghiu-yi , O Id n sag es o f the Ila n dy n as ty T qu oted i n 1 1 i e Ku -yu - 1 V u .

57. Hun Shu Fa Chang cHh. Description of official robes in the Ila n

History.

58, Han Shu Yu -fit chih. Description of the imperial carriages and equi-
page in the Ilan History,

T 'a nyshih Ln> Lives of the Emperors of the Tang dynasty* a. d,
G 18-907,

Ming-huang T&a-lu. Records of the reign of Mivg-huang (713-755).

By Cheng Chhi-hui* Tang dynasty.

Kai-yuan Yi xh ih. Matters omiUed in the annals of the K \ii-yva n
period (a. d, 713-741)* by Wang JOti-yii, tenth century,

Huang ChUto II ui Tien. Statutes of government of the imperial dynasty.
Sung dynasty, a. d. 960-1280,

C Fieri Han Chiuo-ssu chih . Description of the sacri tidal rites in the
Former Han History.

42.

43.

44.

45.

46.

43.

49.

50.

51.

53.

53*

51).

60.

61.

62,

370 JADE AS A MlHERAi.

64. Kan Chun. Discourses on the Kan by Lin Yu eh of the Bung dynasty,

65. Chin Shu Chin-shih. Ancient events in the History of the Chin

dynasty, a* d, 265-419*

66. Ta Citing Uni Tien* Statutes of goyernment of the Great CJCing

dynasty (1644- ).

67* GLien-ch' o4ei-$hu> A cyclopaedia in 120 books by Cli’6n Jgndisi, who
completed it in 1632*

68* Wang Yi Yd Lun. Description of Jade by Wang Yu
69. T'ai-p'ing Tit Lan . The vast encyclopaedia in 1006 books, finished in
977, by command of Tai-Tsung, second emperor of the Sung
dynasty*

70* Ku Li * Description of the Ancient Ritual in the Book of Rifes.

7L K’uei T’ien La * A small collection of incidents chiefly relating to the
imperial court, written by the historian On-yang Hsiu after
his retirement from office, and published in 1067*

ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE MANUFACTURE OF

JADE.

PREFACE.

The Classic Book of Rites says : u If Jade be not carved
it cannot make a vessel” This means that jade which is
brought from the mountains or rivers a crude, formless
mass requires the skill of clever workmen to select the
best part and carve and polish it properly, before it can be
made into a finished vessel.

Doctor Bushell, an Englishman, who has spent over
twenty years of Ills life in the Central Kingdom,* being
naturally fond of ancient works of art, has gathered
together a large collection of specimens of Chinese work in
porcelain, bronze, and jade, which, during moments of
leisure from official work, he takes much interest in study-
ing. Of the different kinds of jade helms picked out some
of the choicest and most beautiful of the pieces, f and
offered them to the photographer, who has made a series
of illustrations. He has also invited the learned Tang
Jung-tso to write a Discourse on Jade, to be printed and
published for the benefit of those interested in the subject.
Only fearing that in the absence of plates to illustrate the
art of carving and polishing jade, it could hardly be found
that the description was altogether clear, he has instructed
me to go personally to see the various processes of carving
and polishing, and to make pictures of them, in the hope

♦ The name China” is unknown to the natives of that country. Their
name for the country is Chung Kwoh, “ Central (or Middle) Kingdom.” — Edi-
tor's note ,

f The artist is wrong here, my own Collection being only of porcelain and
bronze. The illustrations he refers to are those of Mr. Bishop’s beautiful
series of jades, some photographs of which I had once shown to him.
S. W. B.

B72

JADE A3 A MINERAL, 373

that those who may consult the book may be more
thoroughly satisfied.

This work of Dr. Bushel], although only a leisure occu-
pation, will yet fill a small unknown gap in the exact
knowledge of handicraft work.

This Preface was written in the cyclical year kenfy yin
of the reign of Kuang -hsu, in the last ten days of the
foil tli month, at Yen Til (Peking) by the artist Li Shih-
ch’uaii, styled Cheng-yuan,*'

TABLE OF CONTENTS

1, Pounding the Sand

2, Grinding the Sand

3, Sawing open the Crude Jade

4, The Slicing Saw

5, The Shaping Wheel

6, The Grinding Wheel

7, Hollowing the Interior

8, Carving Ornamental Designs

9, The Diamond Borer

10. Openwork Carving

11. Piercing Holes

12. The Wooden Polishing Wheel

13. The Leather Polishing Wheel,

I. POUNDING THE SAND,

There are many kinds of tools used in working jade, but
they do the work not by their own strength, but by the
help of the stone sand. I am informed that the black, red,
and yellow sands employed all come from Huodu Hsien,
in the province of Chihli, and that some is also brought
from the province of Yunnan, It comes in pieces like the
small anthracite coal used by blacksmiths, and requires to
be pounded with pestle and mortar to the size of broken
rice. This is then passed through a very tine sieve, washed

* The Preface is stamped at foot m vermilion with two seals, the first in-
scribed with the author's personal name, 4 Shih^chTlan/’ the second with his
literary, or artistic, name, " Li ChSug-yuan,”

374

JADE AS A MINERAL.

to separate impurities, and then when water is added it is
fit for use.

2. GRINDING THE SAND.

The yellow sand used for t lie polishing wheel requires to
be ground down very finely and evenly, after which it is
washed and mixed with water, ready for use.

N. B. These two operations are combined in the first
picture, and the tubs below contain the black sand, charac-
terised as very hard ; the red sand, as a little softer ; and
the yellow sand, as still softer than the red ; the tub on the
left being filled with a fourth kind, called pao liao ,

precious-stone dust,” for use on the leather wheel, which
gives the final polish to the jade.

3. SAWING OPEN THE CRUDE JADE.

The tool used is a two-handled steel saw, kept moist
with black sand mixed with water. If it be a very large,
heavy block of jade, it is sawn open, as illustrated in the
picture. If the block of jade be only 20 or 30 catties in
weight, it is suspended on a steelyard, and sawn open with
a large plate-saw 20 inches in diameter. The jade is found
in nature generally enveloped in stone, and to get at the
jade this skin must first be stripped off, just as a fruit is
peeled to get at the kernel. This is the first process in
working jade.

4. THE SLICING SAW.

This saw is mounted on a wooden axle, and consists of a
round plate of steel with an edge as sharp as that of a
knife. It is called the slicing saw, and is moistened with
red sand mixed with water to saw up the jade, from which
the envelope has been stripped into square or oblong slabs,
of a size corresponding to the object to be made, ready to
be fashioned by the shaping wheel. If the piece of jade
be large and heavy it. is suspended on the end of a steel-
yard, as in the picture ; if it be small and light it is held
in the hand, the steelyard not being required.

JADE AS A MINERAL,

3 ? 5

N. B. The plate-saw, the axle, and the treadles, with
which it is worked, are figured in detail below, as well as
an iron hammer and block for keeping the plate hammered,
in shape. Saws of different sizes are placed ready on the
table, and wooden guards to protect the workmen hang on
the wall.

5 . THE SHAPING WHEEL.

These wheels are rings of steel from half an inch down
to two or three lines in thickness* The axis of the ring is
mounted with a thick slab of bamboo, with a depression in
the centre, into which the wooden axle-rod is stuck with
red glue. This wheel is used to remove the sharp edges
and corners from the square or oblong piece of jade, hence
its name of shaping wheel. When the edges have been
thus removed, the object is shaped, but the jade is still
rough and uneven, so that it requires the grinding wheel
to smooth it, and the wooden wheel, glue wheel, and
leather wheel to give it a final bright polish.

6* THE GRINDING WHEEL.

The grinding wheels are steel plates two or three lines
in thickness, turned on a wooden axle. These grinding
wheels are of six or seven different sizes. They are used
to grind the piece that has been fashioned by the shaping
wheel, till the surface is uniformly smooth. When this
work is finished the piece is ready to have ornamental
designs carved upon it, to be bored with the diamond, to
be hollowed out or pierced, whenever such work is re-
quired.

7 . HOLLOWING TIIE INTERIOR,

By hollowing the interior is meant u removing the core/’
Whenever a hollow space lias to be left inside the jade
object, it must be first bored with the round steel cylindrical
borer, which, after the boring is finished, leaves a round
core inside. This core has to be dug out with a steel
chisel struck by a small hammer* If the mouth of the

376

JADE AS A MINERAL,

jade object is to be left small and the chamber larger, fiat
steel gimlets, like corkscrews, are used to hollow out still
more the interior of the piece.

X, B. The borer is mounted, as figured below, on an
iron rod, and is channelled twice or three times, to allow
the sand to get in. The gimlets are fixed into a hollow in
the end of the similar iron rod. The revolving strap
attached to the treadles is made of leather.

8. CARVING ORNAMENTAL DESIGNS.

When the jade has to be decorated with ornamental
designs the tools used are of two kinds. The first are
small round plates of steel, with sharp edges like knives,
called nails {ting-tzu), because they are somewhat like
round-headed nails in shape. The others are small steel
plates with thicker edges, called i/a Vo . These tools are
made of many different sizes and shapes, according to the
fancy of the workman, and according to the nature of the
work required. All jade objects, of square or round form,
of large or small size, which are to be ornamented outside
with different designs, must have the patterns carved with
these tools.

X. B. Some of these small plates are figured below,
with the iron rod on which they are mounted, a little
hammer to drive them into the hollow end of the rod, and
another tiny hammer to straighten the plate of the
41 nails . 71

9. THE DIAMOND BO REE.

When the jade object has to be carved in openwork
{a jour), holes must first be pierced with the diamond,
following the pattern of the design. This work is called
diamond-boring, and only after it is done can the wire
bow-saw be introduced and worked round the outline of
the pattern. The pieces carved in openwork and deco-
rated with ornamental designs have still to be polished to
finish them off.

X. B. The lever which presses down the diamond is

JADE AS A MINERAL,

377

figured below, a weight being suspended to the arm by a
string which passes through a round hole in the middle of
the table, while a small cup is fixed underneath the end of
the arm to hold the rod in which the diamond is fixed,
which the workman turns, with the bow in his right hand,
holding the piece of jade with his left.

10 . OPENWORK CARVING.

When a slab of jade has to be carved in openwork it
must be pierced with round holes by the diamond borer
and afterwards sawn with a steel wire stretched on a bow.
When this is used, one end of the wire is first loosened, so
that the wire may be passed through one of the holes,
after which it is fastened again to the end of the bow. It
is then moistened with sand and water, and the jade sawn
out following the outline of the pattern. An upright piece
of wood is fixed in the table, or a horizontal piece nailed
on, with a vise attached, to grasp the jade object firmly.

N. B. The apparatus is figured in more detailed form
below, with bow both strung and unstrung.

11 . PIERCING HOLES.

Small objects, such as snuff-bottles, thumb-rings, mouth-
pieces of tobacco pipes, and the like, which cannot be
held in the hand, are placed in a large bamboo cylinder
about nine inches high, filled with clear water, on which
float pieces of wood pierced with holes or hollowed into
nests, corresponding in size to that of the jade articles.
The jade having been fixed in one of these cavities, the
left hand of the workman is left free to press the diamond
borer with a little iron cup held in the palm, while his
right hand wields the bow which pierces the holes.

12 . THE WOODEN POLISHING WHEEL.

When the grinding wheel has done its work, although
the surface of the jade is smooth and uniform, yet it has
no bright gloss, and the wooden wheel must be used, with

378

JADE AS A MINERAL,

yellow diamond dust or with a paste made of one of the
colored sands, to give it a polish. If the jade article is
too small to be polished on the wooden wheel, or if the
pattern of the design is very small and complicated, so
that the wooden wheel cannot be used, then a small wheel
is made of a piece of dry gourd-skin to polish it.

N. B. Two wooden polishing tools, adapted to be
mounted in an iron rod for polishing the interior of vases,
etc., are figured below, in addition to the wheel described
above.

13. THE LEATHER POLISHING WHEEL.

This is a picture of the leather wheels which give the
bright polish. These wheels are made of four or five
layers of ox leather sewn together by hempen cord. They
vary in size from over a foot in diameter down to two or
three inches, and are all used with a paste made of the
4 ‘ precious-stone dust” mixed with water for polishing
the jade. After it has been polished on the leather wheel,
the jade acquires a bright glossy surface of warm, uniform
color; such as is most highly appreciated by cultured col-
lectors. This is the finishing touch of artistic work in
jade, and completes the cycle of work.

MMm

-Ji

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